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Introduction

Computer Science involves the study of computation, automation, and information. Computer science spans theoretical disciplines (such as algorithms, theory of computation, and information theory) to practical disciplines (including the design and implementation of hardware and software). Computer science is generally considered an area of academic research and distinct from computer programming.

Algorithms and data structures are central to computer science. The theory of computation concerns abstract models of computation and general classes of problems that can be solved using them. The fields of cryptography and computer security involve studying the means for secure communication and for preventing security vulnerabilities. Computer graphics and computational geometry address the generation of images. Programming language theory considers approaches to the description of computational processes, and database theory concerns the management of repositories of data. Human-computer interaction investigates the interfaces through which humans and computers interact, and software engineering focuses on the design and principles behind developing software. Areas such as operating systems, networks, and embedded systems investigate the principles and design behind complex systems. Computer architecture describes the construction of computer components and computer-operated equipment. Artificial intelligence and machine learning aim to synthesize goal-orientated processes such as problem-solving, decision-making, environmental adaptation, planning, and learning found in humans and animals. Within artificial intelligence, computer vision aims to understand and process image and video data, while natural-language processing aims to understand and process textual and linguistic data.

The fundamental concern of computer science is determining what can and cannot be automated. The Turing Award is generally recognized as the highest distinction in computer science.

As a discipline, computer science spans a range of topics from theoretical studies of algorithms and the limits of computation to the practical issues of implementing computing systems in hardware and software. CSAB, formerly called Computing Sciences Accreditation Board—which is made up of representatives of the Association for Computing Machinery (ACM), and the IEEE Computer Society (IEEE CS)—identifies four areas that it considers crucial to the discipline of computer science: theory of computation, algorithms and data structures, programming methodology and languages, and computer elements and architecture. In addition to these four areas, CSAB also identifies fields such as software engineering, artificial intelligence, computer networking and communication, database systems, parallel computation, distributed computation, human-computer interaction, computer graphics, operating systems, and numerical and symbolic computation as being important areas of computer science.

Theoretical Computer Science

Theoretical Computer Science is mathematical and abstract in spirit, but it derives its motivation from practical and everyday computation. Its aim is to understand the nature of computation and, as a consequence of this understanding, provide more efficient methodologies.

Theory of Computation

According to Peter Denning, the fundamental question underlying computer science is, "What can be automated?" The theory of computation is focused on answering fundamental questions about what can be computed and what amount of resources are required to perform those computations. In an effort to answer the first question, computability theory examines which computational problems are solvable on various theoretical models of computation. The second question is addressed by computational complexity theory, which studies the time and space costs associated with different approaches to solving a multitude of computational problems.

The famous P = NP? problem, one of the Millennium Prize Problems, is an open problem in the theory of computation.

Information and Coding Theory

Information theory, closely related to probability and statistics, is related to the quantification of information. This was developed by Claude Shannon to find fundamental limits on signal processing operations such as compressing data and reliably storing and communicating data. Coding theory is the study of the properties of codes (systems for converting information from one form to another) and their fitness for a specific application. Codes are used for data compression, cryptography, error detection and correction, and more recently also for network coding. Codes are studied for the purpose of designing efficient and reliable data transmission methods.

Data Structures and Algorithms

Data structures and algorithms are the studies of commonly used computational methods and their computational efficiency.

Programming Language Theory and Formal Methods

Programming language theory is a branch of computer science that deals with the design, implementation, analysis, characterization, and classification of programming languages and their individual features. It falls within the discipline of computer science, both depending on and affecting mathematics, software engineering, and linguistics. It is an active research area, with numerous dedicated academic journals.

Formal methods are a particular kind of mathematically based technique for the specification, development, and verification of software and hardware systems. The use of formal methods for software and hardware design is motivated by the expectation that, as in other engineering disciplines, performing the appropriate mathematical analysis can contribute to the reliability and robustness of a design. They form an important theoretical underpinning for software engineering, especially where safety or security is involved. Formal methods are a useful adjunct to software testing since they help avoid errors and can also give a framework for testing. For industrial use, tool support is required. However, the high cost of using formal methods means that they are usually only used in the development of high-integrity and life-critical systems, where safety or security is of utmost importance. Formal methods are best described as the application of a fairly broad variety of theoretical computer science fundamentals, in particular logic calculi, formal languages, automata theory, and program semantics, but also type systems and algebraic data types to problems in software and hardware specification and verification.

Computer Systems and Computational Processes

Artificial Intelligence

Artificial intelligence (AI) aims to or is required to synthesize goal-orientated processes such as problem-solving, decision-making, environmental adaptation, learning, and communication found in humans and animals. From its origins in cybernetics and in the Dartmouth Conference (1956), artificial intelligence research has been necessarily cross-disciplinary, drawing on areas of expertise such as applied mathematics, symbolic logic, semiotics, electrical engineering, philosophy of mind, neurophysiology, and social intelligence. AI is associated in the popular mind with robotic development, but the main field of practical application has been as an embedded component in areas of software development, which require computational understanding. The starting point in the late 1940s was Alan Turing's question "Can computers think?", and the question remains effectively unanswered, although the Turing test is still used to assess computer output on the scale of human intelligence. But the automation of evaluative and predictive tasks has been increasingly successful as a substitute for human monitoring and intervention in domains of computer application involving complex real-world data.

Computer Architecture and Organization

Computer architecture, or digital computer organization, is the conceptual design and fundamental operational structure of a computer system. It focuses largely on the way by which the central processing unit performs internally and accesses addresses in memory. Computer engineers study computational logic and design of computer hardware, from individual processor components, microcontrollers, personal computers to supercomputers and embedded systems. The term “architecture” in computer literature can be traced to the work of Lyle R. Johnson and Frederick P. Brooks, Jr., members of the Machine Organization department in IBM's main research centre in 1959.

Concurrent, Parallel, and Distributed Computing

Concurrency is a property of systems in which several computations are executing simultaneously, and potentially interacting with each other. A number of mathematical models have been developed for general concurrent computation including Petri nets, process calculi and the Parallel Random Access Machine model. When multiple computers are connected in a network while using concurrency, this is known as a distributed system. Computers within that distributed system have their own private memory, and information can be exchanged to achieve common goals.

Computer Networks

This branch of computer science aims to manage networks between computers worldwide.

Computer Security and Cryptography

Computer security is a branch of computer technology with the objective of protecting information from unauthorized access, disruption, or modification while maintaining the accessibility and usability of the system for its intended users.

Historical cryptography is the art of writing and deciphering secret messages. Modern cryptography is the scientific study of problems relating to distributed computations that can be attacked. Technologies studied in modern cryptography include symmetric and asymmetric encryption, digital signatures, cryptographic hash functions, key-agreement protocols, blockchain, zero-knowledge proofs, and garbled circuits.

Databases and Data Mining

A database is intended to organize, store, and retrieve large amounts of data easily. Digital databases are managed using database management systems to store, create, maintain, and search data, through database models and query languages. Data mining is a process of discovering patterns in large data sets.

Computer Graphics and Visualization

Computer graphics is the study of digital visual contents and involves the synthesis and manipulation of image data. The study is connected to many other fields in computer science, including computer vision, image processing, and computational geometry, and is heavily applied in the fields of special effects and video games.

Image and Sound Processing

Information can take the form of images, sound, video, or other multimedia. Bits of information can be streamed via signals. Its processing is the central notion of informatics, the European view on computing, which studies information processing algorithms independently of the type of information carrier - whether it is electrical, mechanical, or biological. This field plays important role in information theory, telecommunications, information engineering and has applications in medical image computing and speech synthesis, among others. What is the lower bound on the complexity of fast Fourier transform algorithms? is one of the unsolved problems in theoretical computer science.

Applied Computer Science

Computational Science, Finance, and Engineering

Scientific computing (or computational science) is the field of study concerned with constructing mathematical models and quantitative analysis techniques and using computers to analyze and solve scientific problems. A major usage of scientific computing is the simulation of various processes, including computational fluid dynamics, physical, electrical, and electronic systems, and circuits, as well as societies and social situations (notably war games) along with their habitats, among many others. Modern computers enable the optimization of such designs as complete aircraft. Notable in electrical and electronic circuit design are SPICE, as well as software for the physical realization of new (or modified) designs. The latter includes essential design software for integrated circuits.

Social Computing and Human-Computer Interaction

Social computing is an area that is concerned with the intersection of social behaviour and computational systems. Human-computer interaction research develops theories, principles, and guidelines for user interface designers.

Software Engineering

Software engineering is the study of designing, implementing, and modifying the software in order to ensure it is of high quality, affordable, maintainable, and fast to build. It is a systematic approach to software design, involving the application of engineering practices to software. Software engineering deals with the organizing and analyzing of software—it doesn't just deal with the creation or manufacture of new software, but its internal arrangement and maintenance. For example software testing, systems engineering, technical debt, and software development processes.

Brief History

The earliest foundations of what would become computer science predate the invention of the modern digital computer. Machines for calculating fixed numerical tasks such as the abacus have existed since antiquity, aiding in computations such as multiplication and division. Algorithms for performing computations have existed since antiquity, even before the development of sophisticated computing equipment.

Wilhelm Schickard designed and constructed the first working mechanical calculator in 1623. In 1673, Gottfried Leibniz demonstrated a digital mechanical calculator, called the Stepped Reckoner. Leibniz may be considered the first computer scientist and information theorist, for, among other reasons, documenting the binary number system. In 1820, Thomas de Colmar launched the mechanical calculator industry when he invented his simplified arithmometer, the first calculating machine strong enough and reliable enough to be used daily in an office environment. Charles Babbage started the design of the first automatic mechanical calculator, his Difference Engine, in 1822, which eventually gave him the idea of the first programmable mechanical calculator, his Analytical Engine. He started developing this machine in 1834, and "in less than two years, he had sketched out many of the salient features of the modern computer". "A crucial step was the adoption of a punched card system derived from the Jacquard loom" making it infinitely programmable. In 1843, during the translation of a French article on the Analytical Engine, Ada Lovelace wrote, in one of the many notes she included, an algorithm to compute the Bernoulli numbers, which is considered to be the first published algorithm ever specifically tailored for implementation on a computer. Around 1885, Herman Hollerith invented the tabulator, which used punched cards to process statistical information; eventually, his company became part of IBM. Following Babbage, although unaware of his earlier work, Percy Ludgate in 1909 published the 2nd of the only two designs for mechanical analytical engines in history. In 1937, one hundred years after Babbage's impossible dream, Howard Aiken convinced IBM, which was making all kinds of punched card equipment and was also in the calculator business to develop his giant programmable calculator, the ASCC/Harvard Mark I, based on Babbage's Analytical Engine, which itself used cards and a central computing unit. When the machine was finished, some hailed it as "Babbage's dream come true".

During the 1940s, with the development of new and more powerful computing machines such as the Atanasoff–Berry computer and ENIAC, the term computer came to refer to the machines rather than their human predecessors. As it became clear that computers could be used for more than just mathematical calculations, the field of computer science broadened to study computation in general. In 1945, IBM founded the Watson Scientific Computing Laboratory at Columbia University in New York City. The renovated fraternity house on Manhattan's West Side was IBM's first laboratory devoted to pure science. The lab is the forerunner of IBM's Research Division, which today operates research facilities around the world. Ultimately, the close relationship between IBM and the university was instrumental in the emergence of a new scientific discipline, with Columbia offering one of the first academic-credit courses in computer science in 1946. Computer science began to be established as a distinct academic discipline in the 1950s and early 1960s. The world's first computer science degree program, the Cambridge Diploma in Computer Science, began at the University of Cambridge Computer Laboratory in 1953. The first computer science department in the United States was formed at Purdue University in 1962. Since practical computers became available, many applications of computing have become distinct areas of study in their own rights.

Degrees in Computer Science

Students can earn computer science degrees at the undergraduate and graduate levels. Different degrees prepare graduates for specific career paths. For example, software developers need a bachelor's degree, while most computer and information research scientists hold a master's degree.

In addition to degree-granting programs, learners can also earn a certificate in computer science or attend a coding bootcamp. These shorter programs offer training in programming, web development, and computer systems without including general education courses. However, many employers expect a degree for careers in computer science, so bootcamp and certificate graduates may not have as many career opportunities.

Certificate Program in Computer Science

An online certificate program in computer science offers focused training in a niche area of computer science. For example, students can enrol in a computer programming certificate program or a web development certificate program. These programs train learners in programming languages and core skills needed for careers in tech.

The length of a computer science certificate varies depending on the program and school. Many certificates take one year or less. A certificate can lead to career opportunities as a computer programmer or web developer, though most other roles require a degree.

Associate Degree in Computer Science

An associate degree in computer science introduces learners to foundational concepts in programming. Associate programs incorporate courses in programming languages, computer systems, and databases, as well as classes in statistics, algebra, web development, and operating systems. An associate degree meets the requirement for a career as a web developer or computer support specialist. Graduates can also transfer into a four-year college to earn a bachelor's degree.

Completing an associate degree generally takes two years. During that time, learners take general education courses and classes within their majors. A transfer-ready associate degree often meets the general education requirements for a bachelor's degree, significantly shortening the amount of time required to complete a bachelor's program.

Bachelor's Degree in Computer Science

A bachelor's degree in computer science trains undergraduates in computer programming, database management, and software development. In addition to courses within the computer science major, degree-seekers strengthen their problem-solving and critical thinking skills through general education requirements in the humanities, social sciences, and natural sciences. A bachelor's degree meets the requirements for many careers, including network architect, information security analyst, and software developer.

Earning a bachelor's in computer science typically takes four years for full-time students. Transfer students or those who choose an accelerated program may earn their degrees in less time.

What Is the Difference Between a Bachelor of Arts (BA) and a Bachelor of Science (BS) in Computer Science?

Some universities offer both a BA and a BS in computer science. The degrees largely overlap in terms of major coursework and requirements. However, a BA requires different general education courses, including a foreign language. In a BS program, undergrads take more math and science courses.

At many schools, a BA allows students to pursue a minor in addition to their major, while a BS may not. Graduates of both programs qualify for entry-level computer science jobs.

Master's Degree in Computer Science

A master's degree in computer science provides advanced training in software engineering, data analytics, and computer systems. Master's students often complete required courses in algorithms, programming, and software architecture. Many programs also offer electives in areas like artificial intelligence, software management, and mobile computing to train learners for specialized career paths.

Completing a master's in computer science generally takes two years, depending on the program and the student's enrollment status. Universities may offer accelerated programs that take as little as one year. Graduates can work as data scientists, computer and information systems managers, and software developers.

Joint MBA/MS in Computer Science

A joint MBA/MS in computer science blends business and computer science training at the graduate level. The dual program shortens the time commitment needed to earn both degrees while also offering technical and leadership training.

Professionals considering supervisory, executive, or management-level roles benefit from the focused coursework of an MBA while advancing their computer science skills. Earning a joint MBA/MS in computer science typically takes 2-3 years.

Doctoral Degree in Computer Science

A doctorate in computer science prepares graduates for advanced research and academic positions. During a doctoral program, computer science candidates complete core courses and classes in a specialization area, like artificial intelligence, human-computer interactions, or machine learning. After meeting coursework requirements, degree-seekers take comprehensive examinations and complete a dissertation.

Earning a doctoral degree in computer science typically takes 4-5 years. Some programs admit doctoral applicants with a bachelor's degree, while other programs require a master's. With a doctorate, graduates can work as computer science professors, computer scientists, and research scientists.

Career Outlook

The increasing scope of computer science means you have plenty of choice in a wide variety of highly specialized areas.

Computer technologies are integral to modern life, so you’re likely to find your computer science skills in high demand across many different industries. These include financial organizations, management consultancy firms, software houses, communications companies, data warehouses, multinational companies, governmental agencies, universities and hospitals.

As always, it’s extremely beneficial to have completed relevant work experience. You should also consider compiling a portfolio of your own independent projects outside of your degree, which could be in the form of programming, moderating online or even building an app. This will demonstrate to employers your interest in the subject and your problem-solving skills, creativity and initiative.

IT Consultant

Working in partnership with clients, an IT consultant advises clients on the planning, design, installation and usage of information technology systems to meet their business objectives, overcome problems or improve the structure and efficiency of their IT systems.

As you represent a broad role in IT, your job will be similar to that of systems analysts, systems designers and applications programmers, whose roles are more specialized but nonetheless work on a consultancy basis.

You may also become involved in sales and business development, identifying potential clients and maintaining good business contacts. There is fierce competition in this role, so gaining work experience in a commercial environment would help increase your prospects.

Cybersecurity Consultant

Depending on what computer science specializations you studied during your degree, you may wish to specialize as a cybersecurity consultant or an information security specialist. Maintaining cyber security has become increasingly important, so in this role you will focus on understanding the risks to the security of information or data.

You’ll analyze where security breaches may occur or have occurred, and restore or reinforce systems against such breaches, to ensure that confidential data is protected. This role could include ‘ethical hacking’, meaning deliberately attempting to hack into your employer’s network to expose any weaknesses. Alternatively, you could work as a computer forensics analyst or investigator to combat the increasing phenomenon of cyber-crime.

Information Systems Manager

A similar role to an IT consultant, an information systems manager is usually a full-time member of staff, responsible for the secure and effective operation of computer systems within their company. You’ll be responsible (perhaps with the help of a team of IT staff) for the entire upkeep of the ICT infrastructure within your organization, with typical tasks involving the overseeing of system installation; ensuring systems are backed-up and that the back-up systems are operating effectively; purchasing hardware and software; setting up secure access for all users; ensuring security of data from internal and external attack; and providing IT support and advice for users.

You’ll need to make sure the ICT facilities meet the needs of your company and are current, while remaining within a set budget, and within all relevant software licensing laws. You may also need an understanding of business and management principles in order to contribute to organizational policy regarding quality standards and strategic planning in relation to IT.

Database Administrator

 database administrator (DBA) is responsible for accurately and securely using, developing and maintaining the performance, integrity and security of a computerized database. The specific role is always determined by the organization in question but is likely to mean being involved purely in database maintenance or specialized in database development.

The role is also dependent on the type of database and processes and capabilities of the database management systems (DBMS) in use in your particular organization.

Typically, this role includes ensuring data remains consistent, is clearly defined, easily accessible, is secure and can be recovered in an emergency. You’ll also be required to troubleshoot should any problems arise; liaise with programmers, operational staff, IT project managers and technical staff; provide user training, support and feedback; and write reports, documentation and operating manuals.

Multimedia Programmer

A multimedia programmer is responsible for designing and creating multimedia computer products, making sure they’re functional and maintaining fidelity to a designer’s specification. You’ll use creative as well as technical skills to develop multimedia features including text, sound, graphics, digital photography, 2D/3D modelling, animation and video.

You’ll need to work with the designer to understand the design concept, discuss how it can be technically implemented, identify the operational rules necessary, write efficient computer code or script to make the features work, run tests of the product to test for bugs and rewrite or add new code if necessary.

You’ll also be available for technical support after the product is completed and need to keep abreast of industry news and developments in order to suggest and implement improvements.

Systems Analyst

A systems analyst uses computers and associated systems to design new IT solutions, as well as modifying and improving current systems to integrate new features or enhancements, all with the aim of improving business efficiency and productivity.

This role requires a high level of technical proficiency and clear awareness of current business practices. Clients may be internal, e.g. departments within the same organization, or external, depending on your employer.

Games Developer

Games developers produce games for personal computers, games consoles, social/online games, arcade games, tablets, mobile phones and other hand-held devices. This role splits into two main parts. First, there’s the creative side of designing a game and dealing with the art, animation and storyboarding. Second, there’s the programming side, using programming languages such as C++.

To increase your chances of entry into games development careers, it would be helpful to have studied related aspects during your degree. It is also essential that you create a portfolio (for artistic roles) or working demo (for programming roles) with examples of work to show employers.

Technical Writer

Required in many industries, technical writers produce descriptions or instructions to help people understand how to use a product or service. The strong technical knowledge that you’ve gained during your computer science degree will be very useful in this role, particularly your knowledge of software packages, as you could be writing manuals for high-tech products.

Technical writers work for an extensive assortment of industries, from finance to nuclear energy. Again, relevant experience is useful, as are strong writing skills and the ability to convey instructions clearly in the relevant language/s.

Other Computer Science Careers

If none of the above computer science careers suit you, other options with a computer science degree include: working in other areas of development (such as web, games, systems, products, programs and software), as an analyst (be it business continuity, systems or technical), as an administrator (of databases or networks), or in an academic or industrial research capacity, contributing to the ongoing development of computers and related technologies. You could also pursue computer science careers in teaching, IT training, journalism, management or entrepreneurship.