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Introduction

Law is a system of rules created and enforced through social or governmental institutions to regulate behaviour, with its precise definition a matter of longstanding debate. It has been variously described as a science and the art of justice. Law is the discipline and profession concerned with the customs, practices, and rules of conduct of a community that are recognized as binding by the community. The philosophy of law is commonly known as jurisprudence. Normative jurisprudence asks "what should law be?", while analytic jurisprudence asks "what is law?".

Legal systems vary between countries, with their differences analysed in comparative law. In civil law jurisdictions, a legislature or other central body codifies and consolidates the law. In common law systems, judges make binding case law through precedent, although on occasion this may be overturned by a higher court or the legislature. Historically, religious law influenced secular matters and is still used in some religious communities. Sharia law based on Islamic principles is used as the primary legal system in several countries, including Iran and Saudi Arabia.

Law's scope can be divided into two domains. Public law concerns government and society, including constitutional law, administrative law, and criminal law. Private law deals with legal disputes between individuals and/or organisations in areas such as contracts, property, torts/delicts and commercial law. This distinction is stronger in civil law countries, particularly those with a separate system of administrative courts; by contrast, the public-private law divide is less pronounced in common law jurisdictions.

Law provides a source of scholarly inquiry into legal history, philosophy, economic analysis and sociology. Law also raises important and complex issues concerning equality, fairness, and justice.

Law, or legal studies, comes into contact with almost every area of human life, touching upon issues relating to business, economics, politics, the environment, human rights, international relations and trade. It is telling that the first academic degrees developed were all related to law. As a law student, you can expect to learn how to tackle some of the most problematic – indeed, often seemingly irresolvable – conflicts and issues in modern society and morality. In providing a framework through which to examine and understand different societies and cultures, law degrees are a useful way to prepare not only for specific legal careers but for a broad range of professional roles – and indeed, for life in general.

Brief History

The history of law links closely to the development of civilization. Ancient Egyptian law, dating as far back as 3000 BC, was based on the concept of Ma'at and characterised by tradition, rhetorical speech, social equality and impartiality. By the 22nd century BC, the ancient Sumerian ruler Ur-Nammu had formulated the first law code, which consisted of casuistic statements ("if … then ..."). Around 1760 BC, King Hammurabi further developed Babylonian law, by codifying and inscribing it in stone. Hammurabi placed several copies of his law code throughout the kingdom of Babylon as stelae, for the entire public to see; this became known as the Codex Hammurabi. The most intact copy of these stelae was discovered in the 19th century by British Assyriologists and has since been fully transliterated and translated into various languages, including English, Italian, German, and French.

The first academic degrees were law degrees, and the first law degrees were doctorates. The foundations of the first universities in Europe were the glossators of the 11th century, which were schools of law. The first European university, Bologna, was founded by four legal scholars in the 12th century. The first academic title of "doctor" applied to scholars of law. The degree and title were not applied to scholars of other disciplines until the 13th century.

The University of Bologna served as the model for other law schools of the medieval age. While it was common for students of law to visit and study at schools in other countries, that was not the case with England. This was because of the English rejection of Roman law. Although the University of Oxford and the University of Cambridge did teach canon law up until the English Reformation, its importance was always superior to civil law in those institutions.

Degrees in Law

A law degree is an academic degree conferred for studies in law. Such degrees are generally preparation for legal careers. But while their curricula may be reviewed by legal authority, they do not confer a license themselves. A legal license is granted by examination and exercised locally. The law degree can have local, international, and worldwide aspects, such as in England and Wales, where the Legal Practice Course is required to become a solicitor or the Bar Professional Training Course (BPTC) to become a barrister.

There are lots of different types of law degrees available, varying according to where you study. In most countries, law degrees take the form of an LLB (Bachelor of Laws) which allows you to go on to take the national Bar or Law Society qualifying examinations, in order to become a practising lawyer. In some countries, a BA in Law (BL) or a BSc in Law is in place instead. Often, these alternative names are used interchangeably. However, some universities differentiate between LLB and BA Law programs, with the former focusing exclusively on law and the latter allowing students to take course modules in other subjects, with a focus on humanities.

Most people know that becoming a lawyer requires years of college to earn a law degree, but many people don’t realize there are several types of law degrees. The type of law degree an individual pursues depends mostly on what type of career they want to have. Each type of law degree prepares the student for a certain type of job, but each one also requires a different type and amount of training. Here are five types of law degrees:

• Juris Doctor

• Master of Laws

• Doctor of Judicial Science

• Master of Legal Studies

• Master of Dispute Resolution

The US and Japan offer a Juris Doctor (JD), which is also offered in Canada, Australia and Hong Kong. In such countries, legal studies are focused at graduate level (after completion of a bachelor’s degree in a different discipline) with students earning their JD in order to practice. The JD will typically take three years to complete. There is also an option to earn a one year Master of Laws (LLM) degree in an area of specialization (such as tax law) after earning a JD. Foreign lawyers can also study to receive an LLM in order to practice in countries that require a JD. In order to qualify for a postgraduate degree in law, undergraduate students in the US must take and pass the Law School Admission Test (LSAT).

While most LLM and JD programs are primarily aimed at preparing students for legal careers, it’s also possible to take graduate-level law degrees with a greater focus on academic research. These may be referred to either as a PhD in Law, Doctor of Laws, or Doctor of Juridical Science (JSD). It is also possible to do an intensive two-year law course or vocational courses of varying length.

Career Outlook

Lawyers work in a variety of settings, requiring both the skills you develop in law school, prior facets of your pre-law school background and additional training you will obtain following law school. A J.D. is also an incredibly beneficial degree to have for a wide variety of other aspirations.

Legal Careers

Private Practice

Some work as solo practitioners, others in small or boutique law firms. Many work in firms that have several hundred lawyers in cities around the world.  Lawyers usually join firms as associates and work toward becoming partners.

Government

Many government lawyers work at the local level, but state governments and the federal government also hire lawyers to perform a multitude of tasks.

In the U.S. most federal government agencies have legal counsel. These agencies include the U.S. Department of Justice, the Office of Homeland Security, the Security Exchange Commission, the Consumer Product Safety Commission, the Patent and Trademark Office, and just about every other government agency that you can name. Attorneys also serve in all branches of the military. Each military branch has its own Judge Advocate General’s Corps (JAG).

State and local governments include attorneys who work as prosecutors in District Attorney’s offices and in some jurisdictions, Public Defenders’ offices, Attorneys General offices, state agencies, commissions and boards. They can also be found representing both a state’s executive and legislative branches as well.

Judicial Clerkship

Judicial clerks are a subset of government lawyers but warrant separate mention. Depending on how a state’s court system is structured, judicial clerkships are available at both the federal and state levels. Judicial clerks research and draft memoranda and opinions for judges. Often, these intellectually stimulating and prestigious positions are short-term. Frequently, recent law graduates will spend a year or two clerking before embarking on their legal careers.

Public Interest

Many public interest lawyers work for legal-aid societies, which are private, non-profit agencies designed to serve economically disadvantaged people. These lawyers might represent clients in landlord-tenant disagreements, or negotiate child visitation rights. In Mississippi, public interest attorneys include public defenders. In many jurisdictions, courts contract with private practitioners to represent indigent people in criminal cases.

In-House

Corporations large and small can be another possible work setting for attorneys. Usually, the largest number of “in-house” attorneys can be found at corporate headquarters. In-house corporate counsel advises the company on legal activities related to the company’s business. Large companies often have correspondingly large legal departments and a number of in-house attorneys who specialize in specific issues.

Non-Legal

Law Firm Administration

Sizeable law firms often have a variety of non-practice related employment. Legally trained people work in areas of business development, clerk and attorney recruitment, law firm finances, human resources or managing office workflow. Graduates interested in these law firm positions usually have a business, accounting or human resources background.

Politics

Some law school graduates will end up working in the political process as legislative representatives.

Legal Publishing and Journalism

Most law students use either Lexis or Westlaw as research tools during law school. Several print and electronic media concentrate primarily on legal news. For those students with backgrounds in publishing or journalism, jobs with legal publishers as well as print or electronic media might also provide law-related employment.

Higher Education Administration/Academia

Law school graduates often work in law schools as well as colleges and universities.  Lawyers teach in law schools, colleges, and other educational levels.  While some people go on to jobs in faculty positions, many other law school graduates work in non-academic portions of colleges as Dean, Director of Admissions, Alumni Affairs and Development, and Career Services to name a few.

Financial planning, investment banking, estate planning

Law school graduates may work in bank trust departments, brokerage firms, insurance companies, development offices for preparatory schools, hospitals and universities.  Often an undergraduate major in accounting or finance would be helpful as well as tax law classes, in addition to a legal education.

Introduction

Political Science is the study of politics and power from domestic, international, and comparative perspectives. It entails understanding political ideas, ideologies, institutions, policies, processes, and behaviour, as well as groups, classes, government, diplomacy, law, strategy, and war. A background in political science is valuable for citizenship and political action, as well as for future careers in government, law, business, media, or public service.

A political science major is a social science degree path that requires students to study government in theory and practice. Majors will explore topics related to political theory, international relations, comparative politics and more. By the time they complete their degrees, students should understand political issues and theories and have the skills to confidently approach research questions. Options after graduation include doctorate programs in the field and graduate or professional study in law, international relations, medicine and more. Students in a political science major may also be able to receive class credit for internships in campaign offices, law firms, non-governmental organizations and more.

Modern political science can generally be divided into the three subdisciplines of comparative politics, international relations, and political theory. Other notable subdisciplines are public policy and administration, domestic politics and government (often studied within comparative politics), political economy, and political methodology. Furthermore, political science is related to and draws upon, the fields of economics, law, sociology, history, philosophy, human geography, journalism, political anthropology, psychology, and social policy.

Political science is methodologically diverse and appropriates many methods originating in psychology, social research, and cognitive neuroscience. Approaches include positivism, interpretivism, rational choice theory, behaviouralism, structuralism, post-structuralism, realism, institutionalism, and pluralism. Political science, as one of the social sciences, uses methods and techniques that relate to the kinds of inquiries sought: primary sources, such as historical documents and official records, secondary sources, such as scholarly journal articles, survey research, statistical analysis, case studies, experimental research, and model building.

Political science, possibly like the social sciences as a whole, can be described "as a discipline lives on the fault line between the 'two cultures' in the academy, the sciences and the humanities." Thus, in some American colleges where there is no separate school or college of arts and sciences per se, political science may be a separate department housed as part of a division or school of humanities or liberal arts. Whereas classical political philosophy is primarily defined by a concern for Hellenic and Enlightenment thought, political scientists are also marked by a great concern for "modernity" and the contemporary nation-state, along with the study of classical thought, and as such share more terminology with sociologists (e.g., structure and agency).

Most United States colleges and universities offer BA programs in political science. MA or MAT and PhD or EdD programs are common at larger universities. The term political science is more popular in North America than elsewhere; other institutions, especially those outside the United States, see political science as part of a broader discipline of political studies, politics, or government. While political science implies the use of the scientific method, political studies imply a broader approach, although the naming of degree courses does not necessarily reflect their content. Separate programs (often professional degrees) in international relations and public policy are not uncommon at both the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. Master's-level programs in public administration are professional degrees covering public policy along with other applied subjects; they are often seen as more linked to politics than any other discipline, which may be reflected by being housed in that department.

Brief History

As a social-political science, contemporary political science started to take shape in the latter half of the 19th century. At that time, it began to separate itself from political philosophy, which traces its roots back to the works of Aristotle and Plato, which were written nearly 2,500 years ago. The term "political science" was not always distinguished from political philosophy, and the modern discipline has a clear set of antecedents including also moral philosophy, political economy, political theology, history, and other fields concerned with normative determinations of what ought to be and with deducing the characteristics and functions of the ideal state.

The advent of political science as a university discipline was marked by the creation of university departments and chairs with the title of political science arising in the late 19th century. In fact, the designation "political scientist" is typically for those with a doctorate in the field, but can also apply to those with a master's in the subject. Integrating political studies of the past into a unified discipline is ongoing, and the history of political science has provided a rich field for the growth of both normative and positive political science, with each part of the discipline sharing some historical predecessors. The American Political Science Association and the American Political Science Review were founded in 1903 and 1906, respectively, in an effort to distinguish the study of politics from economics and other social phenomena. The journal Political Science Quarterly was established in 1886 by the Academy of Political Science. In the inaugural issue of Political Science Quarterly, Munroe Smith defined political science as "the science of the state. Taken in this sense, it includes the organization and functions of the state, and the relation of states one to another."

In 2000, the Perestroika Movement in political science was introduced as a reaction against what supporters of the movement called the mathematization of political science. Those who identified with the movement argued for a plurality of methodologies and approaches in political science and more relevance of the discipline to those outside of it.

Some evolutionary psychology theories argue that humans have evolved a highly developed set of psychological mechanisms for dealing with politics. However, these mechanisms evolved for dealing with the small group politics that characterized the ancestral environment and not the much larger political structures in today's world. This is argued to explain many important features and systematic cognitive biases of current politics.

Degrees in Political Science

All political science degrees, whether an associate degree or PhD, fall under social sciences. Social sciences are usually considered a "soft" science, compared with a "hard," objective science like chemistry or physics; however, political science is becoming increasingly data-driven.

A bachelor's degree in political science can be earned as either a bachelor of arts (BA) or a bachelor of science (BS). The categorization and ability to choose your degree type vary among schools. If both options exist, their requirements will be slightly different.

The course of study for a BS in political science typically includes mathematics and statistics.

TYPES OF POLITICAL SCIENCE DEGREES

Associate

The curriculums are English, American history, social science, major concepts of political science, macroeconomics. It Prepares students to transfer to a bachelor's program in political science as a junior. Not sufficient for most jobs directly related to political science, but can prepare students for office administration.

Bachelor's

The curriculums are Political theory, comparative politics, international relations, American government and politics, political methodology. BA or BS degree-holders can enter the job force or continue their education with graduate school or law studies. The holders meet basic requirements for some entry-level positions at agencies, nonprofits, and companies.

Master's

The Curriculum includes Political theory, philosophy, economics, behaviour and institutions, security, peace and conflict, race and ethnicity, thesis. It is intended to lead to a doctorate but can replace work experience for professional advancement. With a master's degree, graduates can work as political scientists, high school teachers, and senior analysts.

Doctorate

The curriculums are Advanced political theory, quantitative research, modelling, statistics, dissertation. Doctorate holders can proceed to a Terminal degree in political science. A PhD is required to work in academia and to hold specific leadership roles.

Career Outlook

Many of the career paths open to political science graduates deal directly with textual analysis, data crunching, and persuasive communication. While as a course of study political science focuses on systems of power and governance, the practical abilities and thought patterns rehearsed in class are applicable beyond just politics.

Introduction

Psychology is the scientific study of mind and behaviour. Psychology includes the study of conscious and unconscious phenomena, including feelings and thoughts. It is an academic discipline of immense scope, crossing the boundaries between the natural and social sciences. Psychologists seek an understanding of the emergent properties of brains, linking the discipline to neuroscience. As a social science, psychologists aim to understand the behaviour of individuals and groups.

A professional practitioner or researcher involved in the discipline is called a psychologist. Some psychologists can also be classified as social, behavioural, or cognitive scientists. Some psychologists attempt to understand the role of mental functions in individual and social behaviour. Others explore the physiological and biological processes that underlie cognitive functions and behaviours.

Psychologists are involved in research on perception, cognition, attention, emotion, intelligence, subjective experiences, motivation, brain functioning, and personality. Psychologists' interests extend to interpersonal relationships, psychological resilience, family resilience, and other areas within social psychology. They also consider the unconscious mind. Research psychologists employ empirical methods to infer causal and correlational relationships between psychosocial variables. Some, but not all, clinical and counselling psychologists rely on symbolic interpretation.

While psychological knowledge is often applied to the assessment and treatment of mental health problems, it is also directed towards understanding and solving problems in several spheres of human activity. By many accounts, psychology ultimately aims to benefit society. Many psychologists are involved in some kind of therapeutic role, practising in clinical, counselling, or school settings. Other psychologists conduct scientific research on a wide range of topics related to mental processes and behaviour. Typically the latter group of psychologists work in academic settings (e.g., universities, medical schools, hospitals). Another group of psychologists is employed in industrial and organizational settings. Yet others are involved in work on human development, ageing, sports, health, forensics, and the media.

Brief History

In a philosophical context, psychology was around thousands of years ago in ancient Greece, Egypt, India, Persia, and China.

In 387 BCE, Plato suggested that the brain is where mental processes take place, and in 335 BCE Aristotle suggested that it was the heart.

Avicenna, the famous Muslim doctor, born in 980 AD., studied and treated epilepsy, nightmares, and poor memory. The first hospitals treating psychiatric conditions were said to have been set up by Islamic doctors in medieval times.

In 1774, Franz Mesmer proposed that hypnosis, or “mesmerism,” might help cure some types of mental illness. In 1793, Philippe Pinel released the first patients with mental health problems from confinement in a move that signalled a move toward more humane treatment.

In 1879, Wilhelm Wundt, Germany, founded psychology as an independent experimental field of study. He set up the first laboratory that carried out psychological research exclusively at Leipzig University. Wundt is known today as the father of psychology.

In 1890, an American philosopher, William James, published a book entitled Principles of Psychology. It was discussed by psychologists worldwide for many decades. In the same year, New York State passed the State Care Act, in which people with mental health problems were to leave poor houses and enter the hospital for treatment.

In 1890, the American Psychological Association (APA) was founded, under the leadership of G. Stanley Hall. Hermann Abbingaus, who lived from 1850 to 1909, and worked at the University of Berlin, was the first psychologist to study memory extensively. Ivan Pavlov, who lived from 1849 to 1936, carried out the famous experiment which showed that dogs salivated when they expected food, introducing the concept of “conditioning.”

The Austrian Sigmund Freud, who lived from 1856 to 1939, introduced the field of psychoanalysis, a type of psychotherapy. He used interpretive methods, introspection, and clinical observations to gain an understanding of the mind. He focused on resolving unconscious conflict, mental distress, and psychopathology. Freud argued that the unconscious was responsible for most people’s thoughts and behaviour, and for mental health problems.

E. B Titchener, an American, strongly believed in structuralism, which focuses on the question: “What is consciousness?” William James and John Dewey were strong believers in functionalism, which addressed the “What is consciousness for?” The debate between the functionalists and structuralists led to rapid growth in interest in psychology in the United States and elsewhere, and the establishment of the first psychology laboratory in the U.S., at Johns Hopkins University.

Behaviourism

In 1913 an American psychologist, John B. Watson, founded a new movement that changed the focus of psychology. Behaviour, he argued, is not the result of internal mental processes, but the result of how we respond to the environment. Behaviourism focused on how people learn new behaviour from the environment.

Humanism

Humanists viewed behaviourism and psychoanalytic theory as too dehumanizing. Rather than being victims of the environment or the unconscious, they proposed that humans are innately good and that our own mental processes played an active role in our behaviour. The humanist movement puts a high value on emotions, free will, and a subjective view of experience.

Cognitive theory

Introduced in the 1970s, this is seen as the most recent school of thought in psychology. Cognitive theorists believe that we take in information from our environment through our senses and then process the data mentally by organizing it, manipulating it, remembering it, and relating it to information we have already stored. Cognitive theory is applied to language, memory, learning, perceptual systems, mental disorders, and dreams.

Today

Nowadays, psychologists study all these approaches and choose what appears to be best from each approach for a particular situation.

Degrees in Psychology

Psychology Degrees

Long considered one of the most fascinating social sciences, psychology ranks among the nation's top college majors. Students may pursue psychology degrees at the associate, bachelor's, master's, and doctoral levels.

While each type of degree emphasizes skills that translate into different career paths, employment opportunities in the field vary considerably by speciality and minimum educational qualifications. The highest paying and most specialized positions require clinical and research training, increasing the demand for master's, PhD, and Psy.D. degree-holders.

Associate Degree in Psychology

An associate degree in psychology, which generally takes two years of full-time study, offers a quick entry into the workforce compared to other degree paths. Graduates find employment in an array of beginning or supporting roles in the social and human services and mental health fields. For many students, the 60-credit associate degree serves as a stepping stone toward bachelor's and master's degrees, along with more advanced career opportunities. While most associate degrees consist primarily of general education requirements that emphasize verbal and written communication, math, and analytical skills, the psychology offerings introduce students to the discipline, covering the major theories and topics such as cognition, personality, and developmental approaches.

Bachelor’s Degree in Psychology

A bachelor's degree offers the best pathway to a variety of psychology careers. Graduates may take positions in social and community services, human resources, and rehabilitation services or pursue employment in non-psychological fields such as business, criminal justice, and education. A bachelor's also provides the academic foundation for a graduate degree required to enter more advanced positions in the field. Most bachelor's programs consist of 160 credits completed over four years.  While courses vary by program, most psychology majors take courses in theory and research methods, addictions, and developmental psychology. Clinical experiences make up an essential part of the psychology curriculum, providing students with practical career-focused training.

Master’s Degree in Psychology

Although a master's degree in psychology generally requires two years of study beyond the bachelor's, the benefits outweigh the time commitment and financial costs. This degree provides minimal educational qualification for counselling, administrative, and research positions in a variety of settings, including social and community services, education, and mental healthcare. Master degree-holders often continue their studies in doctoral programs usually to prepare for positions as licensed clinical psychologists or researchers. The typical curriculum offers core psychology courses and clinical experiences. Depending on the program, students may choose from several specializations that reflect their personal and professional interests, in areas such as child psychology, forensic psychology, and sports psychology.

PhD Degree in Psychology

All states require professional psychologists to hold a doctoral degree, either a PhD or a Psy.D. While clinical psychologists who have earned either degree may obtain state licenses to practice, a PhD provides the appropriate kind of training for students interested in teaching at the postsecondary level and conducting scientific research. A PhD program, which can take 5-8 years to finish, places more emphasis on statistics and research methodology than clinical applications. Like the Psy.D. degree, the curriculum typically includes a year-long internship, approved by the American Psychological Association (APA). The dissertation requirement may prolong the length of time needed to complete a PhD degree.

Psy.D. Degree in Psychology

Unlike the research-oriented PhD degree, Psy.D. programs focus on clinical applications, assessment strategies, and intervention techniques with less emphasis on qualitative and quantitative methods. The Psy.D. curriculum usually offers specializations in clinical practice areas such as family and couples therapy, school psychology, counselling, and gerontology, requiring an APA-approved internship relating to the area of practice. Best suited for students seeking to enter clinical practice and administrative roles rather than teaching or research, a Psy.D. provides a more pragmatic approach to psychology. While some programs may require a dissertation or capstone research project, the degree typically takes less time to complete than a PhD, with most students finishing all requirements in 4-6 years.

Career Outlook

Psychology graduates can expect an overall 14% increase in employment between 2018-2028, with even higher job growth rates for clinical, counselling, school, and industrial-organizational psychologists.

There are many different options available to psychology degree holders, depending on your specializations and interests, such as:

• Psychologist
• Psychotherapist
• Social worker
• Counsellor
• Educational psychologist
• Human resource manager
• Teacher
• Research roles
• Media roles

Although many roles will be available to you with an undergraduate degree, some more highly specialized roles may require further study. Of the psychology careers which don’t require further study, training is usually available on the job to ensure you continue moving forward in your career.

Psychology careers in healthcare and therapy

Chartered psychologist

With further study and training, you’ll be able to gain qualifications as a chartered psychologist. Within this highly specialized role, you’ll work with people of all backgrounds, both patients and clients. You’ll analyze behaviours, thoughts and emotions in order to better understand and advise on certain actions and/or psychological issues. As a chartered psychologist, you’ll have the option to specialize in a number of areas, including occupational psychology, educational psychology, sport and mental health.

(Note: If you wish to become a psychiatrist – a doctor specializing in the diagnosis and treatment of mental health disorders – you will need to gain a medical degree.)

Psychotherapist

A psychotherapist will work with individuals, couples, groups or families, to help their clients overcome psychological issues, including emotional and relationship-related issues, stress and even addiction.

Depending on what you choose to specialize in during your degree, as well as your personal interests, you can choose to act as a psychotherapist using a number of approaches. These include cognitive behavioural methods, psychoanalytic and psychodynamic therapies, as well as art therapy, drama therapy, humanistic and integrative psychotherapy, Hypno-psychotherapy and experiential therapy.

Social worker

A social worker is someone who works with people who are going through difficult periods in their lives; including groups such as children or the elderly, people with disabilities and victims of crime and abuse. The role of a social worker is to safeguard these people from harm and provide support in order to allow people to improve their situations. Social workers may work within schools, homes, hospitals or other public agencies and will tend to specialize in working with children and families or vulnerable adults.

Counsellor

As a counsellor, you’ll be involved in helping people come to better terms with their lives and experiences through the exploration of feelings and emotions. You’ll work within a confidential setting and be expected to listen attentively to your clients. Key traits of a counsellor include the ability to listen, empathize, offer respect and patience, as well as to analyze the issues at play in order to enable the client to better cope with their situation and help support them in making choices. Like psychotherapy, counselling is often a form of talking therapy and can encompass areas including marriage and family, health, abuse, rehabilitation, education, grief, mental health, career guidance and paediatrics.

Psychology careers in education

 Psychology graduates interested in the education sector have a number of different options. As well as educational therapy, educational psychology and social work within education, psychology graduates may qualify as teachers, working in primary, secondary or tertiary level education. They may instead work within social services to help support learning in the community at all ages, or within the prison sector to provide support for young offenders.

To become an educational psychologist, you will need the same qualifications as any psychologist (a master’s degree and further training). This is a role concerned with the development of young people in educational settings, with the aim of enhancing learning and dealing with social and emotional issues or learning difficulties.

Psychology careers in research

Psychology careers in research may be based within research agencies, public and private organizations or in universities. University-based careers vary but tend to combine research and teaching. Research careers within other sectors are even more wide-ranging but could mean contributing to governmental policy development or issues of importance for the industry. You could also work for a charity or other non-profit organization, perhaps conducting research to help resolve challenges such as speech impediments, brain damage, child development or the impact of legal and illegal drugs on psychological health.

Less typical careers with a psychology degree

As a psychology graduate at the bachelor level, there are thousands of opportunities for you outside healthcare and educational roles if you know where to look. This is due to the varied transferable skills you gain from your degree, as well as widespread recognition of the advantages of having psychological and analytical expertise. In broad terms, psychology graduates can be found working in all sectors of society, including media, criminal justice and rehabilitation, advertising, business and management, sports, public agencies and the legal sector. Some less typical careers with a psychology degree are in Media and Advertising, Human Resources and Communications, Business and Management fields.

Introduction

Sociology is the study of social life, social change, and the social causes and consequences of human behaviour. Sociologists investigate the structure of groups, organizations, and societies, and how people interact within these contexts. Since all human behaviour is social, the subject matter of sociology ranges from the intimate family to the hostile mob; from organized crime to religious cults; from the divisions of race, gender and social class to the shared beliefs of a common culture; and from the sociology of work to the sociology of sports. In fact, few fields have such broad scope and relevance for research, theory, and application of knowledge.

Sociology provides many distinctive perspectives on the world, generating new ideas and critiquing the old. The field also offers a range of research techniques that can be applied to virtually any aspect of social life: street crime and delinquency, corporate downsizing, how people express emotions, welfare or education reform, how families differ and flourish, or problems of peace and war. Because sociology addresses the most challenging issues of our time, it is a rapidly expanding field whose potential is increasingly tapped by those who craft policies and create programs. Sociologists understand social inequality, patterns of behaviour, forces for social change and resistance, and how social systems work. As the following pages convey, sociology is an exciting discipline with expanding opportunities for a wide range of career paths.

Traditional focuses of sociology include social stratification, social class, social mobility, religion, secularization, law, sexuality, gender, and deviance. As all spheres of human activity are affected by the interplay between social structure and individual agency, sociology has gradually expanded its focus to other subjects and institutions, such as health and the institution of medicine; economy; military; punishment and systems of control; the Internet; education; social capital; and the role of social activity in the development of scientific knowledge.

The range of social scientific methods has also expanded, as social researchers draw upon a variety of qualitative and quantitative techniques. The linguistic and cultural turns of the mid-20th century, especially, have led to increasingly interpretative, hermeneutic, and philosophical approaches towards the analysis of society. Conversely, the turn of the 21st century has seen the rise of new analytically, mathematically, and computationally rigorous techniques, such as agent-based modelling and social network analysis.

Social research has influence throughout various industries and sectors of life, such as among politicians, policymakers, and legislators; educators; planners; administrators; developers; business magnates and managers; social workers; non-governmental organizations; and non-profit organizations, as well as individuals interested in resolving social issues in general. As such, there is often a great deal of crossover between social research, market research, and other statistical fields.

Students who have been well trained in sociology know how to think critically about human social life, and how to ask important research questions. They know how to design good social research projects, carefully collect and analyze empirical data, and formulate and present their research findings. Students trained in sociology also know how to help others understand the way the social world works and how it might be changed for the better. Most generally, they have learned how to think, evaluate, and communicate clearly, creatively, and effectively. These are all abilities of tremendous value in a wide variety of vocational callings and professions.

Brief History

Sociological reasoning predates the foundation of the discipline itself. Social analysis has origins in the common stock of Western knowledge and philosophy, having been carried out from as far back as the time of Old comic poetry which features social and political criticism, and ancient Greek philosophers Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle, if not earlier. For instance, the origin of the survey (i.e. the collection of information from a sample of individuals) can be traced back to at least the Domesday Book in 1086, while ancient philosophers such as Confucius wrote about the importance of social roles.

There is evidence of early sociology in medieval Arabic writings as well. Some sources consider Ibn Khaldun, a 14th-century Arab-Islamic scholar from Tunisia, to have been the father of sociology although there is no reference to his work in the work of major founders of modern sociology. Khaldun's “Muqaddimah” was perhaps the first work to advance social-scientific reasoning on social cohesion and social conflict.

Although sociology has its roots in the works of philosophers like Plato, Aristotle, and Confucius, it is a relatively new academic discipline. It emerged in the early 19th century in response to the challenges of modernity. Increasing mobility and technological advances resulted in the increasing exposure of people to cultures and societies different from their own. The impact of this exposure was varied, but for some people, it included the breakdown of traditional norms and customs and warranted a revised understanding of how the world works. Sociologists responded to these changes by trying to understand what holds social groups together and also to explore possible solutions to the breakdown of social solidarity.

Thinkers of the Enlightenment period in the 18th century also helped set the stage for the sociologists who would follow. This period was the first time in history that thinkers tried to provide general explanations of the social world. They were able to detach themselves, at least in principle, from expounding some existing ideology and to attempt to lay down general principles that explained social life.

The Birth of Sociology as a Discipline

The term sociology was coined by French philosopher Auguste Comte in 1838, who for this reason is known as the “Father of Sociology.” Comte felt that science could be used to study the social world. Just as there are testable facts regarding gravity and other natural laws, Comte thought that scientific analyses could also discover the laws governing our social lives. It was in this context that Comte introduced the concept of positivism to sociology — a way to understand the social world based on scientific facts. He believed that, with this new understanding, people could build a better future. He envisioned a process of social change in which sociologists played crucial roles in guiding society.

Other events of that time period also influenced the development of sociology. The 19th and 20th centuries were times of many social upheavals and changes in the social order that interested the early sociologists. The political revolutions sweeping Europe during the 18th and 19th centuries led to a focus on social change and the establishment of social order that still concerns sociologists today. Many early sociologists were also concerned with the Industrial Revolution and the rise of capitalism and socialism. Additionally, the growth of cities and religious transformations were causing many changes in people’s lives.

Other classical theorists of sociology from the late 19th and early 20th centuries include Karl Marx, Emile Durkheim, Max Weber, W.E.B. DuBois, and Harriet Martineau. As pioneers in sociology, most of the early sociological thinkers were trained in other academic disciplines, including history, philosophy, and economics. The diversity of their training is reflected in the topics they researched, including religion, education, economics, inequality, psychology, ethics, philosophy, and theology.

These pioneers of sociology all had a vision of using sociology to call attention to social concerns and bring about social change. In Europe, for example, Karl Marx teamed with wealthy industrialist Friedrich Engels to address class inequality. Writing during the Industrial Revolution, when many factory owners were lavishly wealthy and many factory workers despairingly poor, they attacked the rampant inequalities of the day and focused on the role of capitalist economic structures in perpetuating these inequalities. In Germany, Max Weber was active in politics while in France, Emile Durkheim advocated for educational reform. In Britain, Harriet Martineau advocated for the rights of girls and women, and in the U.S., W.E.B. DuBois focused on the problem of racism.

The Modern History of Sociology

The growth of sociology as an academic discipline in the United States coincided with the establishment and upgrading of many universities that were including a new focus on graduate departments and curricula on “modern subjects.” In 1876, Yale University’s William Graham Sumner taught the first course identified as “sociology” in the United States. The University of Chicago established the first graduate department of sociology in the United States in 1892 and by 1910, most colleges and universities were offering sociology courses. Thirty years later, most of these schools had established sociology departments. Sociology was first taught in high schools in 1911.

Sociology was also growing in Germany and France during this period. However, in Europe, the discipline suffered great setbacks as a result of World Wars I and II. Many sociologists were killed or fled Germany and France between 1933 and the end of World War II. After World War II, sociologists returned to Germany influenced by their studies in America. The result was that American sociologists became the world leaders in theory and research for many years.

Sociology has grown into a diverse and dynamic discipline, experiencing a proliferation of speciality areas. The American Sociological Association (ASA) was formed in 1905 with 115 members. By the end of 2004, it had grown to almost 14,000 members and more than 40 “sections” covering specific areas of interest. Many other countries also have large national sociology organizations. The International Sociological Association (ISA) boasted more than 3,300 members in 2004 from 91 different countries. The ISA sponsored research committees covering more than 50 different areas of interest, covering topics as diverse as children, ageing, families, law, emotions, sexuality, religion, mental health, peace and war, and work.

Degrees in Sociology

Associate Degree in Sociology

An associate degree in sociology examines foundational concepts in the field, including social stratification, culture, inequality, and globalization. These programs typically comprise 60 credits and take two years of full-time study to complete. Courses may cover topics like social research, law and society, race and ethnic relations, and social psychology. Graduates may work in correctional facilities, human service organizations, and paraprofessional roles.

Bachelor's Degree in Sociology

A bachelor's in sociology program includes general education, elective, and major requirements. Learners may take classes on topics like interpersonal relationships and families, individual investigation in sociology, and researching society. These programs may also offer concentrations like economic sociology and global development, social data research, sociology of law, and urban sociology.

This degree typically comprises 120 credits and takes four years of full-time study to complete, though some programs offer accelerated timelines. This highly interdisciplinary degree qualifies graduates for multiple roles in diverse fields.

What's the Difference Between a BA and a BS in Sociology?

Universities may offer two types of sociology degrees: a bachelor of arts (BA) and a bachelor of science (BS). BS in sociology programs focus more on research theories and methodologies than BA programs, concentrating on data collection and analysis. They also typically include more courses focused on the major. In contrast, BA in sociology programs take a more interdisciplinary approach, focusing more on the liberal arts than BS programs.

Master's Degree in Sociology

Master's in sociology programs provide advanced knowledge and skills, emphasizing quantitative approaches, ethnographic studies, and international research. Courses may include understanding race and ethnicity in American society, the politics of algorithms, the changing American city, and social demography.

Students can often customize their degrees through specializations in areas like gender and sexuality, class and stratifications, or social movements and social change. In addition to coursework, learners often must complete field experiences or a thesis. These programs typically comprise 60 credits and take two years of full-time study to complete.

Doctoral Degree in Sociology

The terminal degree in the field, a doctorate in sociology prepares graduates for leadership roles as well as research and teaching positions. Learners typically focus their studies on a niche area, such as criminology and deviance or inequalities in gender, race, and ethnicity. These programs usually take 3-5 years to complete and require students to research, write, and defend a dissertation.

Career Outlook

You can pursue many careers with a sociology degree. Organizations in virtually every industry can benefit from professionals with excellent communication, analytical, and problem-solving skills. Graduates with a sociology degree are qualified for positions in most industries.

Over 40% of sociology professionals work in research and development for social science- and humanities-related organizations. Other common professional environments include educational services organizations and state government facilities.

The following list highlights popular industries and careers for graduates with a sociology degree.

Business

A sociology degree gives students analytical, organizational, and research skills that prepare them for roles in business. For example, management analysts work to improve businesses by collecting and organizing information about organizational issues, assessing financial data, and recommending organizational changes. These professionals typically need at least a bachelor's degree.

Social and Community Services

Graduates with a bachelor's in sociology degree may find sociology jobs as social and community service managers. These professionals engage with community stakeholders to identify and build programs and services that benefit the community. They may oversee administrative tasks, analyze data, and recommend program and service improvements. Social and community service managers benefit from strong organizational, communication, and problem-solving skills.

Justice System

Graduates with a degree in sociology can pursue roles in the justice system. many graduates become rehabilitation counsellors, professionals who assist people within the justice system who are struggling with emotional, mental, developmental, and physical disabilities. They may offer individual and group counselling, develop treatment plans, connect clients with community resources, and maintain client records. This role typically requires a master's degree and a license.

Research

Graduates with a doctoral degree in sociology can pursue research positions as sociologists. Sociologists study community, organizational, and societal structures and how individuals engage with them. They may develop and conduct research projects, collect and analyze data, present research findings at conferences and in publications, and collaborate with relevant stakeholders.

Education

Graduates with an advanced degree in sociology can pursue positions as postsecondary educators. These professionals plan lessons, collaborate with department members to develop curricula, and assess student learning. They may also conduct their own research. While students with a master's degree can sometimes find teaching positions at community colleges, most four-year universities require professors to hold a doctoral degree in their field.

Introduction

History is the study and the documentation of the past. Events before the invention of writing systems are considered prehistory. "History" is an umbrella term comprising past events as well as the memory, discovery, collection, organization, presentation, and interpretation of these events. Historians seek knowledge of the past using historical sources such as written documents, oral accounts, art and material artefacts, and ecological markers.

History is also an academic discipline that uses a narrative to describe, examine, question, and analyze past events, and investigate their patterns of cause and effect. Historians often debate which narrative best explains an event, as well as the significance of different causes and effects. Historians also debate the nature of history as an end in itself, as well as its usefulness to give perspective on the problems of the present.

Stories common to a particular culture, but not supported by external sources (such as the tales surrounding King Arthur), are usually classified as cultural heritage or legends. History differs from myth in that it is supported by evidence. However, ancient cultural influences have helped spawn variant interpretations of the nature of history which have evolved over the centuries and continue to change today. The modern study of history is wide-ranging and includes the study of specific regions and the study of certain topical or thematic elements of historical investigation. History is often taught as part of primary and secondary education, and the academic study of history is a major discipline in university studies.

Herodotus, a 5th-century BC Greek historian, is often considered the "father of history" in the Western tradition, although he has also been criticized as the "father of lies". Along with his contemporary Thucydides, he helped form the foundations for the modern study of past events and societies. Their works continue to be read today, and the gap between the culture-focused Herodotus and the military-focused Thucydides remains a point of contention or approach in modern historical writing. In East Asia, a state chronicle, the Spring and Autumn Annals, was reputed to date from as early as 722 BC, although only 2nd-century BC texts have survived.

Historians write in the context of their own time, and with due regard to the current dominant ideas of how to interpret the past, and sometimes write to provide lessons for their own society. In the words of Benedetto Croce, "All history is contemporary history". History is facilitated by the formation of a "true discourse of past" through the production of narrative and analysis of past events relating to the human race. The modern discipline of history is dedicated to the institutional production of this discourse.

All events that are remembered and preserved in some authentic form constitute the historical record. The task of historical discourse is to identify the sources which can most usefully contribute to the production of accurate accounts of the past. Therefore, the constitution of the historian's archive is a result of circumscribing a more general archive by invalidating the usage of certain texts and documents (by falsifying their claims to represent the "true past"). Part of the historian's role is to skillfully and objectively utilize the vast amount of sources from the past, most often found in the archives. The process of creating a narrative inevitably generates silence as historians remember or emphasize different events of the past.

The study of history has sometimes been classified as part of the humanities and at other times as part of the social sciences. It can also be seen as a bridge between those two broad areas, incorporating methodologies from both. Some individual historians strongly support one or the other classification. In the 20th century, French historian Fernand Braudel revolutionized the study of history, by using such outside disciplines as economics, anthropology, and geography in the study of global history.

Traditionally, historians have recorded events of the past, either in writing or by passing on an oral tradition, and have attempted to answer historical questions through the study of written documents and oral accounts. From the beginning, historians have also used such sources as monuments, inscriptions, and pictures. In general, the sources of historical knowledge can be separated into three categories: what is written, what is said, and what is physically preserved, and historians often consult all three. But writing is the marker that separates history from what comes before.

Archaeology is especially helpful in unearthing buried sites and objects, which contribute to the study of history. Archaeological finds rarely stand-alone, with narrative sources complementing its discoveries. Archaeology's methodologies and approaches are independent of the field of history. "Historical archaeology" is a specific branch of archaeology that often contrasts its conclusions against those of contemporary textual sources. For example, Mark Leone, the excavator and interpreter of historical Annapolis, Maryland, USA, has sought to understand the contradiction between textual documents idealizing "liberty" and the material record, demonstrating the possession of slaves and the inequalities of wealth made apparent by the study of the total historical environment.

There are varieties of ways in which history can be organized, including chronologically, culturally, territorially, and thematically. These divisions are not mutually exclusive, and significant intersections are often present. It is possible for historians to concern themselves with both the very specific and the very general, although the modern trend has been toward specialization. The area called Big History resists this specialization and searches for universal patterns or trends. History has often been studied with some practical or theoretical aim, but also may be studied out of simple intellectual curiosity.

Degrees in History

Associate Degree in History

In an associate program, history students gain analytical and writing skills by conducting independent research and presenting their findings in papers. An associate degree prepares graduates for jobs as administrative assistants or teaching assistants who provide support services for business or education professionals.

After earning an associate degree in history, graduates can also transfer into a bachelor's program to earn a four-year degree.

Bachelor's Degree in History

Students earning a bachelor's degree in history complete general education requirements and upper-level major courses. Many programs let students specialize in an area of history, such as the modern U.S. or medieval European history.

History majors gain valuable research, writing, and analysis skills, which can lead to careers in education, public history, and preservation.

Master's Degree in History

By earning a master's degree, graduates can expand their history career options. Many jobs that directly draw on the skills of a historian, such as adjunct instructor or museum curator, require a graduate degree.

During a master's program, students complete advanced coursework, build their analytical and writing skills, and write a master's thesis demonstrating their historical knowledge. Some specialities, such as public history, often include an internship in a museum, library, or archive.

Doctoral Degree in History

Graduate students who earn a doctoral degree in history typically pursue careers in academia. A doctoral program includes coursework in a specialized field, comprehensive examinations, and a dissertation.

Most doctoral programs in history take at least five years to complete. After graduation, historians can apply for teaching positions at colleges and universities. Professors contribute to their field through scholarship and teaching, and tenured professors can go on to serve as department chairs, deans, and provosts.

Graduates can also pursue nonacademic careers in public history, museums, or government settings.

Career outlook

As with most humanities and social sciences subjects, it’s possible to access a wide range of graduate careers with a history degree. History graduates should acquire a broad knowledge of past issues of human endeavour, and develop an analytical mindset in order to apply this historical knowledge to the societal problems of today. This mindset, honed with a deep insight into the political, cultural and social motivations of historical figures, events and movements, is extremely well-suited to history jobs that are focused on the cultural, economic, political and/or social issues present in the modern world.

Careers and sectors suited to history graduates include:

History jobs in research and heritage

If you have a strong specialist interest in a particular field of history, you may consider pursuing a career in research. This could be in an educational setting, perhaps as a university researcher and lecturer, or within a heritage role in a museum, gallery or archive where the focus is on preserving professional and public knowledge. Additional specialized study or training may prove useful for some of these roles.

History jobs in the museum sector

If you want to work in the museum sector, there are several different history jobs available. You will definitely find it useful to have undertaken work experience in the sector before and/or to have a postgraduate degree.

• Museum curators aim to inform, educate and inspire the visiting public. They might be the managers of smaller museums, or will be in charge of particular sections of larger museums, ensuring that artefacts are kept safely and that staff members are managed efficiently.

• Museum education officers work to ensure the museum is a high-quality learning resource for people of all ages, creating educational resources to engage visitors.

• Museum/gallery exhibitions officers are responsible for all aspects of the project management of permanent or temporary exhibitions, dealing with logistics, public relations and more.

History jobs in the education sector

Many history graduates go on to share their interest in the subject by becoming teachers, at a secondary level or within universities. The first of these options usually requires completion of professional teaching qualification, while the second route often requires completion of studies up to the PhD level. Many history careers within universities combine both teaching and research, with faculty members serving as lecturers and tutors while also conducting original research in their area of expertise.

Media and journalism careers

History graduates’ strong analytical skills may also be especially valuable within media and journalism careers; the ability to interpret a set of facts and tell a compelling story is equally important for a good historian and for a successful reporter. As a writer, editor, broadcaster or media guru, your ability to approach political, cultural and social spheres with a critical eye could help you capture and communicate some of the most memorable news stories around.

Marketing, advertising and public relations careers

The strong analytical and communications skills developed during your history degree should leave you well-prepared for careers in marketing, advertising and public relations. Knowledge of how society and culture have been shaped throughout history could help you to identify and effectively communicate with different target audiences, continuing to develop your understanding of how people behave and respond to a variety of factors.

Other professional sectors where you’ll find lots of history graduates include law, business and finance, politics and the public sector.

Introduction

Business is the activity of making one's living or making money by producing or buying and selling products (such as goods and services). Simply put, it is "any activity or enterprise entered into for profit."

The efficient and effective operation of a business, and study of this subject, is called Management. The major branches of management are financial management, marketing management, human resource management, strategic management, production management, operations management, service management, and information technology management.

Owners may manage their businesses themselves, or employ managers to do so for them. Whether they are owners or employees, managers administer three primary components of the business' value: financial resources, capital (tangible resources), and human resources. These resources are administered in at least six functional areas: legal contracting, manufacturing or service production, marketing, accounting, financing, and human resources.

The Business Administration and Management Field of Study Curriculum are for students who are seeking a Bachelor of Business Administration (BBA), a Bachelor of Arts (BA), or a Bachelor of Science (BS) degree with a major in business, including all business specializations.

Students who continue their studies at a four-year college or university will select a major, and possibly a minor.  Common areas of study include Accounting, Finance, General Business, Human Resources, Information Systems, Management, Marketing, as well as other business-related studies.

Business and related subjects (such as the FAME group – finance, accounting, management and economics) are among the most popular fields of study at universities worldwide, particularly at the graduate level. You might have some vague ideas about why this is the case – business graduates are in high demand worldwide, business touches on pretty much every aspect of modern human society, careers with a business degree are diverse and often highly paid – and these assumptions are likely to be largely true.

Degrees in Business

All business degrees are not created equal. Here are some of the most common degrees that fall under the business umbrella.

• Business management: This degree captures the greatest hits of the field, including marketing, human resources, and organizational and infrastructure management.

• Marketing: This specialized degree teaches students how to implement marketing strategies to achieve certain goals. Subjects like market demand, product pricing, and managing products and brands are covered.

• Economics: Taking the big-picture approach, this degree track explores the ways production and supply and demand impact global markets. It also examines the effects market conditions have on fields like accounting, finance and management.

• Finance: Crunching numbers takes on a new level of importance with this degree, which teaches students how to leverage financial principles to assess and resolve business challenges.

• Human resources: Perfect for those who have a knack for working with people, this degree specialization covers topics like conflict management, how to establish performance standards and how to develop a personnel selection process.

• Accounting: In addition to understanding how to apply accounting principles in business, this specialized degree covers accounting laws and regulations, how to create financial reports and how to conduct audits.

Bachelor of Business Administration

The Bachelor of Business Administration (BBA, B.B.A., BSBA, B.S.B.A., BS, B.S., or B.Sc.) or Bachelor of Commerce (Bcom. or BComm) is a bachelor's degree in commerce and business administration. The duration of the degree is often three years in Europe or four years in the United States of America. The degree is designed to give a broad knowledge of the functional aspects of a company and their interconnection, while also allowing for specialization in a particular area. The degree also develops the student's practical, managerial and communication skills, and business decision-making capability to succeed in the competitive world. Many programs incorporate training and practical experience, in the form of case projects, presentations, internships, industrial visits, and interaction with experts from the industry.

Master of Business Administration

The Master of Business Administration (MBA or M.B.A.) is a master's degree in business administration with a significant focus on management. The MBA degree originated in the United States in the early-20th century, when the nation industrialized and companies sought scientific approaches to management. The core courses in an MBA program cover various areas of business such as accounting, finance, marketing, human resources, and operations in a manner most relevant to management analysis and strategy. Most programs also include elective courses.

Doctor of Business Administration

The Doctor of Business Administration (DBA, D.B.A., DrBA, or Dr.B.A.) is a research doctorate awarded on the basis of advanced study and research in the field of business administration. The D.B.A. is a terminal degree in business administration and is equivalent to the PhD in Business Administration.

PhD in Management

The PhD in Management is the highest academic degree awarded in the study of management. The degree is intended for those seeking academic research- and teaching-careers as faculty or professors in the study of management at business schools worldwide.

Doctor of Management

A newer form of a management doctorate is the Doctor of Management (D.M., D.Mgt., DBA, or DMan). It is a doctoral degree conferred upon an individual who is trained through advanced study and research in the applied science and professional practice of management. This doctorate has elements of both research and practice relative to social and managerial concerns within society and organizations.

Career Outlook

A business degree is a great way to develop many of the transferable skills needed for working in a business environment. There are a number of business degrees that you can undertake, one of the most common of which is an undergraduate business studies degree. Often a business studies degree will cover subjects such as accounting, finance, management and, increasingly, entrepreneurship. This wide range of subjects reflects the multidisciplinary nature of business and the importance of understanding all the key elements needed to make a business successful.

If you’re looking for a degree that specializes more in a particular aspect of the business world (e.g. economics or marketing), consider taking a dedicated program in that area, or a joint honours degree (e.g. Business & Economics). The advantage of a joint degree is that you acquire general business skills along with more specialized ones, leaving you well placed when it comes to applying for graduate jobs.

Corporate business careers are available in pretty much every sector you can think of; all industries need strong leaders, managers, financial advisors and market-savvy decision-makers. For many business graduates, however, the traditional pathways still hold a strong appeal – including careers in the banking and financial sectors, consultancy, human resources and marketing roles.

If a straightforward corporate career is failing to get you excited, then a business program can also give you the skills to create your own business or to take on business and management roles within more creative industries, be that fashion, media, or even the charity sector.

The good thing about a business studies qualification is that it can lead to many entry-level roles upon graduation, while still allowing those who wish to specialize further the chance to improve their return on investment with a graduate degree. Examples of postgraduate programs include Masters in Management, Masters in Finance and (for those who’ve gained some professional experience) the Masters in Business Administration (MBA).

Typical careers with a business degree

Don’t assume that studying business is a one-way route into business leadership and management roles – while this is a common path, business careers span multiple industries. Good business and management skills are key elements of any profitable company, and therefore effective leaders, strategic thinkers and financial experts are all in great demand. Big or small, global or local, companies all over the world are looking for business graduates like you.

Business careers in accounting and finance

Generalized business studies degrees will usually cover aspects of accountancy and finance, however, if you wish to pursue a career in accounting or finance, you’ll usually need to gain further qualifications. A good option for business graduates is to apply for a graduate role and complete a specialized qualification while you work. In many larger companies, the course costs will be covered by the employer.

If you decide to go into accounting or finance, your job may involve reviewing your company’s financial situation both past and present; advising clients and colleagues on tax and expenditure; managing records and business transactions; playing a role in mergers and acquisitions; and taking responsibility for preventing bad practice as well as fraud and negligence.

Business careers in management

Becoming a manager is a tough job, with long hours and heavy responsibilities. The upside is that managerial roles are known for being higher-paid, as well as boasting many opportunities for career progression or even a career U-turn. Managers can be found across all industries and fields, and their job is to provide structure and strategy to a workplace.

Because of the responsibility of such positions, it’s unlikely you’ll find a managerial role without first gaining a further degree or a number of years of mid-level work experience. Despite this, business graduates are well-placed to become managers later on in life, and with determination and steady career progression, an additional degree may not be necessary.

Business careers in consultancy

Another option that may appeal is the field of business consultancy. This means working as part of a team, combining your business expertise and analytical skills in order to provide advice to other companies, usually focusing on how to optimize a specific project or part of the business. Projects and clients may vary widely, ensuring plenty of fresh challenges to get to grips with. Or you may specialize in a particular type of business, combining your business knowledge with a second field of interest, such as engineering or logistics.

Business careers in retail and sales

There’s much more to retail and sales than shelf-stacking and cold-calling, especially if you’re armed with a business degree. Opportunities within sales and retail are numerous, including shop-based and office-based roles, as well as travelling positions for which a good knowledge of global markets is a must.

For those looking to rise to the higher levels of retail and sales careers, large companies often offer the chance to undertake a graduate training program or trainee management program, in order to fast-track your position within the company. This can be highly valuable in gaining on-the-job experience, while continuing to develop your business and management skills in a commercial world.

Other common graduate careers with a business degree include roles within auditing, banking, communications, distribution, energy and utilities, hospitality and leisure, IT, insurance, journalism, law, logistics, manufacturing, media administration, production management, public relations, the public sector and defence, risk management and tax.

Less typical careers with a business degree

What can you do with a business degree without following the typical routes? Well, you can do rather a lot. Roles requiring business acumen and analytical thinking are innumerable, and your choice of which industry to head into is likely to be based on personal interests. It’s a cliché, but true – if you work for a company, product or service you truly believe in, you’re likely to be more motivated and effective in your role and progress more rapidly. Totally there are also other fields (like: the Media, Marketing and Advertising, Human Resources…) that Business graduates can work in.

Introduction

Social Work is an academic discipline and practice-based profession that concerns itself with individuals, families, groups, communities, and society as a whole in an effort to meet basic needs and enhance social functioning, self-determination, collective responsibility, optimal health, and overall well-being. Social functioning is defined as the ability of an individual to perform their social roles within their own self, their immediate social environment, and the society at large. Social work applies areas, such as sociology, psychology, human biology, political science, health, community development, law, and economics, to work with individuals across the lifespan, engage with client systems, conduct assessments, and develop interventions to solve social problems, personal problems, and bring about social change. Social work practice is often divided into micro-work, which involves working directly with individuals or small groups; and macro-work, which involves working with communities, and fostering change on a larger scale through social policy. Starting in the 1980s, a few universities began social work management programmes, to prepare students for the management of social and human service organisations, in addition to classical social work education.

The social work profession developed in the 19th century, with some of its roots in voluntary philanthropy and in grassroots organizing. However, responses to social needs had existed long before then, primarily from public almshouses, private charities and religious organizations. The effects of the Industrial Revolution and of the Great Depression of the 1930s placed pressure on social work to become a more defined discipline as social workers responded to the child welfare concerns related to widespread poverty and reliance on child labour in industrial settings

In the United States, social work undergraduate and master's programs are accredited by the Council on Social Work Education. A CSWE-accredited degree is required for one to become a state-licensed social worker. The CSWE even accredits online master's in social work programs in traditional and advanced standing options. In 1898, the New York Charity Organization Society, which was the Columbia University School of Social Work's earliest entity, began offering formal "social philanthropy" courses, marking both the beginning date for social work education in the United States, as well as the launching of professional social work.

Several countries and jurisdictions require registration or licensure of people working as social workers, and there are mandated qualifications. In other places, a professional association sets academic requirements for admission to the profession. The success of these professional bodies' efforts is demonstrated in that these same requirements are recognized by employers as necessary for employment.

Brief History

The practice and profession of social work has a relatively modern and scientific origin and is generally considered to have developed out of three strands. The first was individual casework, a strategy pioneered by the Charity Organization Society in the mid-19th century, which was founded by Helen Bosanquet and Octavia Hill in London, England. Most historians identify COS as the pioneering organization of the social theory that led to the emergence of social work as a professional occupation. COS had its main focus on individual casework. The second was social administration, which included various forms of poverty relief – 'relief of paupers'. Statewide poverty relief could be said to have its roots in the English Poor Laws of the 17th century but was first systematized through the efforts of the Charity Organization Society. The third consisted of social action – rather than engaging in the resolution of immediate individual requirements, the emphasis was placed on political action working through the community and the group to improve their social conditions and thereby alleviate poverty. This approach was developed originally by the Settlement House Movement.

This was accompanied by a less easily defined movement; the development of institutions to deal with the entire range of social problems. All had their most rapid growth during the nineteenth century, and laid the foundation basis for modern social work, both in theory and in practice.

Professional social work originated in 19th century England, and had its roots in the social and economic upheaval wrought by the Industrial Revolution, in particular, the societal struggle to deal with the resultant mass urban-based poverty and its related problems. Because poverty was the main focus of early social work, it was intricately linked with the idea of charity work.

Other important historical figures that shaped the growth of the social work profession are Jane Addams, who founded the Hull House in Chicago and won the Nobel Peace Prize in 1931; Mary Ellen Richmond, who wrote Social Diagnosis, one of the first social workbooks to incorporate law, medicine, psychiatry, psychology, and history; and William Beveridge, who created the social welfare state, framing the debate on social work within the context of social welfare provision.

Degrees in Social Work

The education of social workers begins with a bachelor's degree (BA, BSc, BSSW, BSW, etc.) or a diploma in social work or a Bachelor of Social Services. Some countries offer postgraduate degrees in social work, such as a master's degree (MSW, MSSW, MSS, MSSA, MA, MSc, MRes, MPhil.) or doctoral studies (PhD and DSW (Doctor of Social Work)). Increasingly, graduates of social work programs pursue post-masters and post-doctoral studies, including training in psychotherapy.

Associate Degree in Social Work

Associate degrees in social work (ASWs) prepare students for paraprofessional roles in the social service field. Community college students interested in social work careers may pursue ASWs or a degree in a related field, such as human services. A few states allow associate degree-holders to become licensed social work assistants or similar support role positions, but the field rarely considers these associate degree-holders as "social workers."

Still, pursuing an associate degree in social work might be a strong first step for students entering community college or technical school. ASW coursework may help you determine whether a career in social work is right for you before pursuing a four-year bachelor's degree.

Bachelor of Social Work

Most positions in social work require a minimum of a bachelor's degree. High school graduates applying to college should consider schools offering BSWs accredited by the Council on Social Work Education (CSWE). If your college or university does not offer an accredited bachelor of Social Work program, you can consider a related degree such as health and human services or sociology.

BSWs provide a strong foundation for social work practitioners who plan to enter the workforce directly after college and begin careers as social workers. BSW graduates can also apply for advanced standing enrollment in graduate school. Advanced standing allows students to skip foundational social work classes and begin graduate school at the concentration level to complete MSW degrees in as little as one year.

Advanced standing enrollees graduate with the same degree as traditional two-year students. Most states require each professional social worker to obtain a BSW or MSW to obtain licensure as a social worker. Therefore, many professionals without BSWs eventually choose to pursue an MSW degree.

Master of Social Work

Clinical social work positions require each candidate to earn an MSW and the appropriate licensure. More states and employers continue to require or strongly prefer MSW degrees for any social work position beyond entry-level. Professionals interested in supervisory roles, clinical positions, management, and administration should consider earning MSWs, either traditionally or online. Unlike other clinical career paths that require a doctoral degree to provide clinical services to clients, social workers become trained for clinical work at the master's level.

Each MSW candidate must hold a bachelor's degree and may need to complete some prerequisite courses if their undergraduate education did not include certain topics. Traditional, full-time MSW programs usually take two years to complete. MSW graduates become prepared to work as professional social workers and apply for licensure.

Doctor of Social Work

Doctor of social work (DSW) programs prepare graduates to work in advanced clinical practice. A DSW program generally focuses more on clinical practice and leadership, as opposed to a PhD in social work, which delves deeper into research and education at the university level. Many colleges and universities offer DSW programs in social work and social welfare.

Students interested in studying social work at the doctoral level should choose programs that include an advanced practice component. This may allow students to receive more specialized training as advanced social work practitioners. A doctoral degree also positions you for advanced or supervisory roles in highly competitive job markets.

PhD in Social Work

A PhD in social welfare or social work typically prepares candidates to engage in social work research at the university level. Earning a PhD in social work prepares learners for academic teaching and research positions at universities. PhD programs typically focus on preparing students for careers in social work academia and less on clinical practice.

Career Outlook

Your social work degree prepares you for a career in a variety of industries and qualifies you for any number of roles in the social work field. You may pursue jobs in locations such as hospitals, schools, mental health clinics, private practices, or corporations. Most organizations in the public and private sector that provide a community service or support individuals and families in an emotional capacity employ professionals with training in social work. The careers below highlight some of the more popular fields in which you can find employment.

Child Welfare

Many social workers find careers in which they support vulnerable and at-risk children and youths, protecting and ensuring they grow up in a safe environment. When they suffer abuse, neglect, or any other kind of harm, you can exercise a number of options to protect them.

Mental Health

Social workers who offer mental health support and care for clients typically possess training in clinical social work. From developing care plans for clients to helping them maintain regular employment, you can become an in-demand professional who ensures that individuals have access to the necessary resources to live healthier and more fulfilling lives.

Criminal Justice and Corrections

Some social work professionals work directly with inmates, ex-offenders, and individuals in prevention or intervention programs. They hold positions such as probation officer, sex offender clinician, transitional case manager, conflict mediator, and more. In these roles, you become an advocate for what is best for your client within the parameters of the justice system.

Policy and Planning

Social workers in this area of the field often work in leadership roles in various organizations, governments, nonprofits, and healthcare administration. Depending on the position, you could find yourself working with legislative bodies, research organizations, public policy think tanks, and social service agencies. Social workers with experience in policy and planning are often in-demand in states with progressive social welfare policies.

Research

If your interests extend into academic research or education, a graduate degree in social work prepares you for a variety of fulfilling positions. Social workers with professorships at universities are able to combine both research and teaching for a well-rounded career. Whether you work in a college, private research organization, or comparable setting, social work researchers try to advance knowledge in the field by conducting quantitative and qualitative research, studying human behaviour, and problem-solving.

Advocacy

Professionals in this essential area of the field represent and fight for their clients, often with the help of an organization or as part of a community, to improve their living situations and access to resources. As a social worker and client advocate, you often must rally against powerful and wealthy institutions that create inequalities and marginalize vulnerable populations.

Substance Abuse

Social workers in this area usually study in a clinical social work graduate program and, if possible, specialize in addiction issues. With the proper certifications and licensure, you can work directly with clients in hospitals, rehabilitation centres, and clinics. You will be able to help clients develop healthier behaviours, deal with their emotions, and wrestle with related mental health issues.

Public Welfare

If you are a creative thinker with leadership and management skills, a career in public welfare may be a great fit. Many professionals in this fieldwork for government agencies and federal programs that advocate for the wellbeing of communities, families, and children. In these roles, you may find yourself working in a management or supervisory role to ensure that projects receive adequate attention, planning, and financing.

The most common jobs Social Work degree-holders get are: School Social Worker, Mental Health and Substance Abuse Social Worker, Child and Family Social Worker, Healthcare Social Worker, Social and Community Service Manager and Social Work Professor.

Introduction

Public policy is an institutionalized proposal to solve relevant and real-world problems, guided by a conception and implemented by programs as a course of action created and/or enacted, typically by a government, in response to social issues. Public policy can be generally defined as a system of laws, regulatory measures, courses of action, and funding priorities concerning a given topic promulgated by a governmental entity or its representatives. Beyond this broad definition, public policy has been conceptualized in a variety of ways.

A popular way of understanding and engaging in public policy is through a series of stages known as "the policy cycle". The characterization of particular stages can vary, but a basic sequence is: agenda setting – formulation – legitimation – implementation – evaluation.

Officials considered as policymakers bear responsibility to reflect the interests of a host of different stakeholders. Policy design entails a conscious and deliberate effort to define policy aims and map them instrumentally. Academics and other experts in policy studies have developed a range of tools and approaches to help in this task.

Individuals and groups often attempt to shape public policy through education, advocacy, or mobilization of interest groups. Shaping public policy is obviously different in Western-style democracies than in other forms of government. But it is reasonable to assume that the process always involves efforts by competing interest groups to influence policymakers in their favour.

As an academic discipline, public policy has been established in the United States and the United Kingdom for many years, and when discussing public policy theory and issues, we often draw on both countries’ academic literature and expertise. Nonetheless, we observe the emergence of public policy as an academic discipline across many countries worldwide though hardly anything is known about the experts and knowledge in the field and the various facets of public policy theory and practice from specific country perspectives. Cognizant of the deeply interdisciplinary nature of public policy, the panel considers aspects of history, governance, economics and law as components of public policy theory development and investigates how these theories have influenced policymaking in Canada, Ghana, Colombia and South Africa. Each paper draws on the advancement of public policy research in distinct country contexts influencing, for instance, public health and agricultural policymaking. Our research and findings are based on the review and assessment of academic literature, development plans, jurisdiction and think tanks promoting public policy research and practice.

The study of public policy must be interdisciplinary in focus because public programs and public policy problems are complex and transcend any single approach. It is important to emphasize that an effective public policy studies program is truly interdisciplinary in approach and not simply multidisciplinary. Not only should multiple disciplines be involved in policy study, but each participant should strive to understand the perspective of the other participants. While not losing his or her particular disciplinary perspective, all participants in the policy study process should strive to understand and appreciate the unique offerings of other disciplinary perspectives.

Brief History

Throughout history, public policy leaders have contributed to the approaches now seen in modern government. History takes place every day. People with a master of public administration and policy develop the skills and experience necessary for the analysis and administration of local and world-changing policies.

There are many major historic public policy documents that helped shape the modern approach to how policy is created. The Magna Carta and the U.S. Constitution, among several, show how the world changed toward modern ideas.

Centuries ago, public policy was a rule of law handed down by monarchs and aristocrats. Through years of discussion, debate and even war, the evolution toward a negotiated approach to public policy has become apparent. With a Master of Public Administration and Policy, graduates are prepared to participate in the creation and revision of public policy, to help resolve local, state, and federal issues.

Degrees in Public Policy

A public policy degree prepares students to analyze community problems and influence lawmaking at the local, state, and federal levels.

Public policy majors work in the public, private, and nonprofit sectors, such as a government agency or advocacy group. Many public policy professionals hold a master's or doctorate degree. Continuing education, such as a certification or fellowship, can also advance your career.

Many schools offer specialized programs in public policy that blend political science, sociology, and data analytics.

Bachelor’s Degree in Public Policy

Bachelor's programs in public administration and policy typically take four years, requiring students to earn at least 120 credits.

Bachelor's programs teach foundational skills like administrative leadership, policy development and implementation, and research methods.

The Bachelor of Public Policy and Service prepares students for professional and academic careers in public service, nonprofit management, policy analysis, and program evaluation. Students learn the factors that affect all levels of government with regard to policy development, decision-making, implementation, and assessment. They understand the intricacies of how policy affects the way people live and societies work.

Master’s Degree in Public Policy

Master's programs in public policy typically require students to complete 30-40 credits, which generally takes about two years.

Master's curricula typically includes classes like public budgeting, ethics and law, and advanced policy analysis and program evaluation.

Students also cultivate creative leadership skills, preparing to work as managers and directors.

The Master of Public Policy (MPP), is one of several public policy degrees. An MPP is a master's-level professional degree that provides training in policy analysis and program evaluation at public policy schools. The MPP program places a focus on the systematic analysis of issues related to public policy and the decision processes associated with them. This includes training in the role of economic and political factors in public decision-making and policy formulation; microeconomic analysis of policy options and issues; resource allocation and decision modelling; cost/benefit analysis; statistical methods; and various applications to specific public policy topics. MPP recipients serve or have served in the public sector, at the international, national, subnational, and local levels.

Doctorate Degree in Public Policy

The degree is a professional doctorate. It is designed for individuals interested in developing skills in policymaking and policy implementation at all levels of government. Completion of this degree will prepare students to conduct policy analysis, advocate for public policies and community-based solutions, or serve in decision-making positions. Its focus is to integrate what is known about the policy process into a set of skills and abilities so individuals can be competent actors in the policy arena.

Professionals who earn a doctoral degree in public policy can compete for executive positions within nonprofit organizations, private companies, and government agencies. Many graduates also pursue teaching jobs at colleges and universities.

Doctoral programs typically require 50-70 credits and take students 5-7 years to complete.

Career Outlook

A career in public policy offers graduates the opportunity to craft and enact policies that promote public well-being.

Careers in public policy depend heavily on empirical research and data. As such, public policy degree programs build skills in data analysis, critical thinking, and decision-making.

This work prepares students to address community problems and concerns and evaluate how local, state, or federal policies can help the situation.

Many graduates find careers in public policy in government agencies and the offices of elected officials. Nonprofit organizations also need public policy graduates for lobbying and legislative advocacy.

Earning a public policy degree can open the door to career paths in the public and private sectors. For example, graduates can use their expertise to serve low-income clients at a legal aid clinic or public defender's office. They can also work at a law firm or in the legal department of a large corporation.

Some public policy graduates also choose careers in law enforcement or corrections. Public policy careers often require a thorough understanding of a specialized topic, like healthcare or energy. You can prepare for these specialized roles by choosing a degree concentration or by supplementing your degree with electives or a minor.

Top Industries for Public Policy Majors are: Federal Executive Branch, Scientific Research and Development Services, Social Advocacy Organizations, Colleges, Universities, and Professional Schools, Local Government, Excluding Schools and Hospitals