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Introduction

Chemistry is the scientific study of the properties and behaviour of matter. It is a natural science that covers the elements that make up matter to the compounds composed of atoms, molecules and ions: their composition, structure, properties, behaviour and the changes they undergo during a reaction with other substances.

In the scope of its subject, chemistry occupies an intermediate position between physics and biology. It is sometimes called the central science because it provides a foundation for understanding both basic and applied scientific disciplines at a fundamental level. For example, chemistry explains aspects of plant chemistry (botany), the formation of igneous rocks (geology), how atmospheric ozone is formed and how environmental pollutants are degraded (ecology), the properties of the soil on the moon (cosmochemistry), how medications work (pharmacology), and how to collect DNA evidence at a crime scene (forensics).

Chemistry addresses topics such as how atoms and molecules interact via chemical bonds to form new chemical compounds. There are two types of chemical bonds: 1. primary chemical bonds e.g covalent bonds, in which atoms share one or more electron(s); ionic bonds, in which an atom donates one or more electrons to another atom to produce ions (cations and anions); metallic bonds and 2. secondary chemical bonds e.g. hydrogen bonds; Van der Waals force bonds, ion-ion interaction, ion-dipole interaction etc.

As with other scientific subjects, specialization is essential due to the basic complexity of the subject at this level. At the undergraduate level, this will often take the form of elective modules, though specialized courses are also an option. The graduate study will certainly involve specialization.

Many specializations will overlap with other science subjects. Some examples are:

Chemical engineering: like alchemy but less gold-fixated, the purpose of chemical engineering is to convert substances into more useful ones - like medicines – using chemical processes. The focus can be on the actual substance produced or the process of conversation.

Biochemistry: The study of the chemical processes within living organisms, such as those which convert thought into action or make you feel a certain way. This is a massive subject and it is predicted that huge strides will be made in the foreseeable future.

Medicinal chemistry: In a way, this branch of chemistry represents a coming together of the two disciplines above, as it involves synthesizing certain chemicals present in the human body. There will always be a demand for this sort of research, and there’s surely a lot of satisfaction to be had in coming up with life-saving or improving drugs

Astrochemistry: The junction between chemistry and astronomy, the goal of astrochemistry is to discover what matters in space is composed, and how elements and molecules behave there. You’ll be rooted on earth, so this will involve computational chemistry, spectroscopy (using light to help identify matter), and ingenuity.

Nuclear chemistry: A fairly self-explanatory discipline, nuclear chemistry is the study of radioactive elements, how to harness them, and their effects on organisms and matter. It has applications in medicine and energy and will involve engineering and collaboration with engineers.

Brief History

The word chemistry comes from a modification of the word alchemy, which referred to an earlier set of practices that encompassed elements of chemistry, metallurgy, philosophy, astrology, astronomy, mysticism and medicine. Alchemy is often seen as linked to the quest to turn lead or other base metals into gold, though alchemists were also interested in many of the questions of modern chemistry.

The definition of chemistry has changed over time, as new discoveries and theories add to the functionality of science. The term "chymistry", in the view of noted scientist Robert Boyle in 1661, meant the subject of the material principles of mixed bodies. In 1663, the chemist Christopher Glaser described "chymistry" as a scientific art, by which one learns to dissolve bodies, and draw from them the different substances on their composition, and how to unite them again, and exalt them to higher perfection.

The 1730 definition of the word "chemistry", as used by Georg Ernst Stahl, meant the art of resolving mixed, compound, or aggregate bodies into their principles; and of composing such bodies from those principles. In 1837, Jean-Baptiste Dumas considered the word "chemistry" to refer to the science concerned with the laws and effects of molecular forces. This definition further evolved until, in 1947, it came to mean the science of substances: their structure, their properties, and the reactions that change them into other substances – a characterization accepted by Linus Pauling. More recently, in 1998, Professor Raymond Chang broadened the definition of "chemistry" to mean the study of matter and the changes it undergoes.

The history of chemistry spans a period from very old times to the present. For several millennia BC, civilizations were using technologies that would eventually form the basis of the various branches of chemistry. Examples include extracting metals from ores, making pottery and glazes, fermenting beer and wine, extracting chemicals from plants for medicine and perfume, rendering fat into soap, making glass, and making alloys like bronze. Chemistry was preceded by its protoscience, alchemy, which is an intuitive but non-scientific approach to understanding the constituents of matter and their interactions. It was unsuccessful in explaining the nature of matter and its transformations, but, by performing experiments and recording the results, alchemists set the stage for modern chemistry. Chemistry as a body of knowledge distinct from alchemy began to emerge when a clear differentiation was made between them by Robert Boyle in his work The Sceptical Chymist (1661). While both alchemy and chemistry are concerned with matter and its transformations, the crucial difference was given by the scientific method that chemists employed in their work. Chemistry is considered to have become an established science with the work of Antoine Lavoisier, who developed a law of conservation of mass that demanded careful measurement and quantitative observations of chemical phenomena. The history of chemistry is intertwined with the history of thermodynamics, especially through the work of Willard Gibbs.

Degrees in Chemistry

At most universities, you can either choose to do a three-year BSc (bachelor of science) degree or a four-year MChem/MSci degree (master of chemistry/science). The first two or three years of BSc and MChem/MSci degrees are often the same. The fourth year of MChem/MSci courses generally consists of a large quantity of more advanced material that isn’t studied in a BSc course. For this reason, entry requirements for MChem/MSci courses are usually higher.

Some courses include a year spent working in a certain industry, which often involves an independent research project. This can help you to decide which area to pursue after graduation.

If you’re planning to apply to the University of Cambridge, be aware that it doesn't offer chemistry as a single honours course. Instead, it offers natural sciences, a four-year degree that covers chemistry, biology, physics and optional modules in a range of other sciences. However, you can choose to specialise in chemistry after your first year.

Career Outlook

Those who study chemistry go on to do many exciting things in a whole range of industries. Notable chemistry graduates include former prime minister of the United Kingdom Margaret Thatcher; famous novelist, Kurt Vonnegut (who wrote Slaughterhouse-Five and Cat’s Cradle); NASA astronaut Story Musgrave and, Marie Curie, the pioneering scientist behind the theory of radioactivity. Basically, the possibilities for chemistry graduates are endless.

Chemistry careers in research

Chemistry graduates have much scope to use their knowledge in a range of research sectors, including roles within chemical engineering, chemical and related industries, healthcare and more. Research careers are more diverse than they might first appear, as there are many different reasons to conduct research and many possible environments. You could be based in a university, combining research with teaching; in a pharmaceutical company, working on developing and trialling new drugs; or in a public-sector research centre, helping to ensure national healthcare provision keeps pace with new discoveries.

While the job of a research scientist varies, most chemistry careers in research are based in laboratories, where research is conducted by teams following scientific methods and standards.

Some examples of the diverse research done by chemistry experts include the discovery of new medicines and vaccines, forensic analysis for criminal cases, improving understanding of environmental issues, and development of new chemical products and materials (e.g. cosmetics, paints, plastics, food and drink).

But chemistry careers don’t begin and end in the lab; there are also many career paths for those who want to work elsewhere. Read on for a range of non-research careers in chemistry…

Chemistry careers in chemical engineering

Chemical engineers work across a number of sectors, including oil and gas, energy, water treatment, plastics, toiletries, pharmaceuticals and food and drink. Processes differ within each of these areas, but chemistry and chemical engineering roles are found throughout and are directly involved in the design, development, creation and manufacturing process of chemical products and materials. Researchers are common within chemical engineering and are often tasked with creating and developing new chemical techniques, frequently combining other advanced and emerging scientific areas such as nanotechnology or biomedical engineering.

Chemical engineers ensure the efficiency and safety of chemical processes, adapt the chemical makeup of products to meet environmental or economic needs, scale up chemical processes for manufacturing purposes, and apply new technologies to improve existing processes. It’s worth bearing in mind that although those who study chemistry at the undergraduate level are good candidates, many more engineering-related and specialized roles will be reserved for engineering graduates and postgraduates.

Chemistry careers in healthcare

Healthcare careers for chemists are once again largely based in laboratories, although increasingly there is opportunity to work at the point of care, helping with the patient investigation. Often called clinical biochemistry or healthcare science, your tasks will be to in order to aid in the investigation, diagnosis and treatment of disease and illness.

Although some roles will require clinical expertise (and a medical qualification), many scientific roles in healthcare simply require scientists to liaise with clinicians in order to interpret patients’ test results, acting as support in diagnosis and assessment. While chemists are unable to advise on medical treatment, their work is vital in ensuring results are accurate, root causes are found, reports are accurately kept, and research is applied.

If you pursue healthcare careers in chemistry, you’ll likely be working as part of a team comprised of fellow chemists, biochemists, biologists, clinicians and pathologists.

Chemistry careers in pharmaceuticals

Closely related to the healthcare industry, the pharmaceutical sector is huge in its own right, offering a correspondingly large employment market. As demand for speciality and new drugs grows, pharmaceutical chemists are relied upon to design, develop, analyze, evaluate and regulate new and existing pharmaceuticals. These chemists, as well as holding technical expertise, also possess strong team, communication and management skills and understand areas such as mathematics and analytical thinking.

While synthetic pharmaceutical chemists (also known as medicinal chemists) focus on researching and developing new, cost-effective drugs for the market, analytical pharmaceutical chemists focus more on the testing and chemical analysis of new drugs, ensuring each product is suitable for the public consumption and in accord with governmental regulations. Toxicology is another fast-growing field for careers in chemistry, in which specialists are tasked with identifying chemical risks and damaging toxins in any chemical that is to be used for public consumption.

While a bachelor’s degree in chemistry will open many entry-level doors in this field, a master’s or even PhD in a related specialization may also stand you in good stead for particularly high-level research roles.

Chemistry careers in the public sector

As well as careers for chemists as researchers in state-led initiatives, there are a growing number of government-funded careers in chemistry within areas such as law, policy, defence, public health and the environment.

Within law and policy, forensic careers are growing, particularly as the techniques used within forensic research continue to undergo rapid development. This is not all about collecting evidence; forensic experts may also be called upon to discuss findings in court, and chemical experts are needed to run analyses on existing policies in order to ensure they’re up to date with scientific developments. While advanced careers in law are out of reach with just a chemistry degree, many entry-level roles and specialized consultancy jobs may be available to chemistry graduates with a particular interest in law and/or policy.

If you decide to pursue scientific roles in public policy, there’s a chance you’ll get to conduct research that will help shape your country’s science policy, and national health and safety regulations.

Public-sector opportunities for chemistry graduates keen to focus on environmental issues include environmental consultancy, agriculture and chemical diagnostics. These roles all focus on the chemical state of the Earth’s environment and analysis of relevant data, (e.g. meteorological data or chemical analysis of soil, water and by-products). The aims of such work will vary, for example, identifying ways to improve crop yield, or providing reports on the effects of certain chemicals on the natural environment. This knowledge can then impact on future environmental policy and regulations.

Introduction

Earth and Space Sciences include multiple interdisciplinary fields such as geology, astronomy, atmospheric science and marine science.

Earth and space science explores the interconnections between the land, ocean, atmosphere, and life of our planet. These include the cycles of water, carbon, rock, and other materials that continuously shape, influence, and sustain Earth and its inhabitants. ESS also explores the cyclical interactions between the Earth system and the Sun and Moon.

Earth science or geoscience includes all fields of natural science related to the planet Earth. This is a branch of science dealing with the physical, chemical, and biological complex constitutions and synergistic linkages of Earth's four spheres, namely biosphere, hydrosphere, atmosphere, and geosphere. Earth science can be considered to be a branch of planetary science, but with a much older history. Earth science encompasses four main branches of study, the lithosphere, the hydrosphere, the atmosphere, and the biosphere, each of which is further broken down into more specialized fields.

There are both reductionist and holistic approaches to Earth sciences. It is also the study of Earth and its neighbours in space. Some Earth scientists use their knowledge of the planet to locate and develop energy and mineral resources. Others study the impact of human activity on Earth's environment, and design methods to protect the planet. Some use their knowledge about Earth processes such as volcanoes, earthquakes, and hurricanes to plan communities that will not expose people to these dangerous events.

Earth Sciences can include the study of geology, the lithosphere, and the large-scale structure of Earth's interior, as well as the atmosphere, hydrosphere, and biosphere. Typically, Earth scientists use tools from geology, chronology, physics, chemistry, geography, biology, and mathematics to build a quantitative understanding of how Earth works and evolves. For example, meteorologists study the weather and watch for dangerous storms. Hydrologists examine water and warn of floods. Seismologists study earthquakes and try to understand where they will strike. Geologists study rocks and help to locate useful minerals. Earth scientists often work in the field—perhaps climbing mountains, exploring the seabed, crawling through caves, or wading in swamps. They measure and collect samples (such as rocks or river water), then record their findings on charts and maps.

Methodologies vary depending on the nature of the subjects being studied. Studies typically fall into one of three categories: observational, experimental, or theoretical. Earth scientists often conduct sophisticated computer analysis or visit an interesting location to study earth phenomena (e.g. Antarctica or hot spot island chains).

A foundational idea in Earth science is the notion of uniformitarianism, which states that "ancient geologic features are interpreted by understanding active processes that are readily observed." In other words, any geologic processes at work in the present have operated in the same ways throughout geologic time. This enables those who study Earth's history to apply knowledge of how Earth processes operate in the present to gain insight into how the planet has evolved and changed throughout long history.

Space Science, body of scientific knowledge as it relates to space exploration; is sometimes also called astronautics. Space science draws on the conventional sciences of physics, chemistry, biology, and engineering, as well as requiring specific research of its own. The particular disciplines are relevant depending on the type of mission being planned. There are four basic categories of space missions. The sounding rocket is restricted to suborbital flights with a maximum altitude between 35 and 1,300 mi (55–2,100 km). Artificial satellites orbit the earth at altitudes between one hundred and several thousand miles. Space probes travel to the moon and planets. The final and most complex category is human spaceflight, of which the Apollo moon landings, the space shuttle, and the Skylab, Mir, and International space stations are outstanding examples. The problems that space science must deal with include prediction and control of trajectories and orbits, telecommunications between spacecraft and earth, spacecraft design and fabrication, and life-support systems for human spaceflight.

Brief History

The period between the end of World War I in 1918 and the start of the hostilities of World War II (1939) was particularly fruitful:

• In 1926, Robert Goddard became the first person to launch a liquid-fuel rocket

• In 1930, Clyde Tombaugh discovered Pluto, a new planet predicted 25 years earlier by Percival Lowell, and seismologist Inge Lehmann, discovered Earth's inner core; and

• In 1935 Charles Richter developed the Richter magnitude scale as a mathematical device to compare the size of earthquakes

As global tensions arose with the advent of the Cold War in 1947, the scientific study continued unabated and the space race began in earnest:

The first International Geophysical Year was proclaimed in 1957, the same year Sputnik I was successfully launched by the Soviet Union

• In 1964, the deep-sea submersible Alvin – capable of diving to 13,000 feet – is launched

• In 1969, in an event that was once only science-fiction, Apollo 11 astronauts Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin walk on the moon

• After the moon landing, atmospheric research, and in particular the depletion of the ozone layer, received renewed attention.

• In 1981, NASA reported satellite evidence that the stratospheric ozone layer was being depleted globally

• Eight years later, in 1989, the Montreal Protocol to phase out stratospheric ozone-destroying chlorofluorocarbons went into effect

With the dawning of the new millennium, researchers employed even more powerful tools and technologies to chart the heavens and track threats posed by natural disasters and anthropogenic climate change.

The Hubble Space Telescope – named after astronomer Edwin Hubble who first discovered galaxies beyond our own 66 years earlier - was launched into orbit in 1990

• In 2013, NASA landed the Curiosity rover on our nearest celestial neighbour, Mars

• A year later, in 2014, the European Space Agency’s Philae lander touched down on the Churyumov–Gerasimenko comet

• In 2017, a Delaware size iced shelf collapsed off of the Larsen C Ice Shelf in Antarctica.

Clearly, the scientific achievements that were needed to overcome the challenges our global society experienced over the last century demanded innovation, creativity, and cooperative effort – all things in which the Earth and space science community excels.  AGU’s Centennial is about using that energy to advance the next century of Earth and space science for the benefit of humanity.

Degrees in Earth and Space Sciences

An Earth and Space Sciences degree can provide you with many skills that employers seek – such as communication, problem-solving, and analysis skills; experience with fieldwork and working in teams; familiarity with geospatial and mapping software; and a solid understanding of science.

You can obtain either a Bachelor of Arts (B.A.) or a Bachelor of Science (B.S.) degree within Earth & Space Sciences.

The B.S. degree in Earth and Space Sciences is more structured and is designed for students interested in geology and geophysics, and a career path in graduate studies or in the private sector where field and technology experiences and problem-solving skills are an important asset.

The BA degree is more flexible and enables students to obtain a broad understanding of earth sciences as a background for professional careers such as science journalism, environmental law, science education, and environmental policy.

Career Outlook

The broad, interdisciplinary field of earth sciences offers careers in many areas, including resource management, environmental protection, urban and rural planning, and geotechnical consulting. An ESS degree equips students with analytical skills, problem-solving skills, communication skills, experience in teamwork, and a solid grounding in science -- all valuable in today's job market.

An ESS degree can lead to a variety of careers. For example, a petroleum geologist may explore for oil and natural gas resources and a geochemist may investigate major and trace elements in groundwater. Here is just a sample of careers in the geosciences:

• Astrobiologist, Economic Geologist, Elementary Science Teacher, Environmental Consultant, Environmental Engineer, Environmental Lawyer, Forest Ranger, Geochemist, Geodesist, Geomorphologist, Geophysicist, Geotechnical Engineer, Hydrologist, Marine Advisor, Marine Geologist/Physicist, Mineralogist, Land Use Planner, Landscape Architect, Mining Engineer, Paleoclimatologist, Palaeontologist, Parks and Natural Resource Manager, Peace Corps Worker, Petroleum Engineer/Geologist, Planetary Geologist, Pollution Control Specialist, Secondary Science Teacher, Sedimentologist, Seismologist, Soil Scientist, Structural Geologist, Surveyor, Science Writer, Urban Planner, Volcanologist, Water Quality Control Technician

Students interested in geology positions are encouraged to learn more about the process for becoming a licensed geologist.

Introduction

Physics is the study of matter and energy — the building blocks of the physical universe — and of interactions between the two. Physicists describe these interactions using the most fundamental laws and principles. As a discipline, physics forms the foundation for understanding how things work, including the basis for engineering concepts and real-world connections to mathematics.

In order to make sense of it, scientists have focused their attention on one or two smaller areas of the discipline. This allows them to become experts in that narrow field, without getting bogged down in the sheer volume of knowledge that exists regarding the natural world.

Physics is sometimes broken into two broad categories, based on the history of the science: Classical Physics, which includes studies that arose from the Renaissance to the beginning of the 20th century; and Modern Physics, which includes those studies which have been begun since that period. Part of the division might be considered scale: modern physics focuses on tinier particles, more precise measurements, and broader laws that affect how we continue to study and understand the way the world works.

Another way to divide physics is applied or experimental physics (basically, the practical uses of materials) versus theoretical physics (the building of overarching laws as to how the universe works).

As you read through the different forms of physics, it should become obvious that there is some overlap. For example, the difference between astronomy, astrophysics, and cosmology can be virtually meaningless at times. To everyone, that is, except the astronomers, astrophysicists, and cosmologists, who can take the distinctions very seriously.

Classical Physics

Before the turn of the 19th century, physics concentrated on the study of mechanics, light, sound and wave motion, heat and thermodynamics, and electromagnetism. Classical physics fields that were studied before 1900 (and continue to develop and be taught today) include:

• Acoustics: The study of sound and sound waves. In this field, you study mechanical waves in gases, liquids, and solids. Acoustics includes applications for seismic waves, shock and vibration, noise, music, communication, hearing, underwater sound, and atmospheric sound. In this way, it encompasses earth sciences, life sciences, engineering, and the arts.

• Astronomy: The study of space, including the planets, stars, galaxies, deep space, and the universe. Astronomy is one of the oldest sciences, using mathematics, physics, and chemistry to understand everything outside of the Earth's atmosphere.

• Chemical Physics: The study of physics in chemical systems. Chemical physics focuses on using physics to understand complex phenomena at a variety of scales from the molecule to a biological system. Topics include the study of nano-structures or chemical reaction dynamics.

• Computational Physics: The application of numerical methods to solve physical problems for which a quantitative theory already exists.

• Electromagnetism: The study of electrical and magnetic fields, which are two aspects of the same phenomenon.

• Electronics: The study of the flow of electrons, generally in a circuit.

• Fluid Dynamics / Fluid Mechanics: The study of the physical properties of "fluids," specifically defined in this case to be liquids and gases.

• Geophysics: The study of the physical properties of the Earth.

• Mathematical Physics: Applying mathematically rigorous methods to solving problems within physics.

• Mechanics: The study of the motion of bodies in a frame of reference.

• Meteorology / Weather Physics: The physics of the weather.

• Optics / Light Physics: The study of the physical properties of light.

• Statistical Mechanics: The study of large systems by statistically expanding the knowledge of smaller systems.

• Thermodynamics: The physics of heat.

Modern Physics

Modern physics embraces the atom and its component parts, relativity and the interaction of high speeds, cosmology and space exploration, and mesoscopic physics, those pieces of the universe that fall in size between nanometers and micrometres. Some of the fields in modern physics are:

• Astrophysics: The study of the physical properties of objects in space. Today, astrophysics is often used interchangeably with astronomy and many astronomers have physics degrees.

• Atomic Physics: The study of atoms, specifically the electron properties of the atom, as distinct from nuclear physics which considers the nucleus alone. In practice, research groups usually study atomic, molecular, and optical physics.

• Biophysics: The study of physics in living systems at all levels, from individual cells and microbes to animals, plants, and entire ecosystems. Biophysics overlaps with biochemistry, nanotechnology, and bio-engineering, such as the derivation of the structure of DNA from X-ray crystallography. Topics can include bio-electronics, nano-medicine, quantum biology, structural biology, enzyme kinetics, electrical conduction in neurons, radiology, and microscopy.

• Chaos: The study of systems with a strong sensitivity to initial conditions, so a slight change at the beginning quickly become major changes in the system. Chaos theory is an element of quantum physics and is useful in celestial mechanics.

• Cosmology: The study of the universe as a whole, including its origins and evolution, including the Big Bang and how the universe will continue to change.

• Cryophysics / Cryogenics /Low-Temperature Physics: The study of physical properties in low-temperature situations, far below the freezing point of water.

• Crystallography: The study of crystals and crystalline structures.

• High Energy Physics: The study of physics in extremely high energy systems, generally within particle physics.

• High-Pressure Physics: The study of physics in extremely high-pressure systems, generally related to fluid dynamics.

• Laser Physics: The study of the physical properties of lasers.

• Molecular Physics: The study of the physical properties of molecules.

• Nanotechnology: the science of building circuits and machines from single molecules and atoms.

• Nuclear Physics: The study of the physical properties of the atomic nucleus.

• Particle Physics: The study of fundamental particles and the forces of their interaction.

• Plasma Physics: The study of matter in the plasma phase.

• Quantum Electrodynamics: The study of how electrons and photons interact at the quantum mechanical level.

• Quantum Mechanics / Quantum Physics: The study of science where the smallest discrete values, or quanta, of matter and energy become relevant.

• Quantum Optics: The application of quantum physics to light.

• Quantum Field Theory: The application of quantum physics to fields, including the fundamental forces of the universe.

• Quantum Gravity: The application of quantum physics to gravity and unification of gravity with the other fundamental particle interactions.

• Relativity: The study of systems displaying the properties of Einstein's theory of relativity, which generally involves moving at speeds very close to the speed of light.

• String Theory / Superstring Theory: The study of the theory that all fundamental particles are vibrations of one-dimensional strings of energy, in a higher-dimensional universe.

Degrees in Physics

Bachelor’s Degree in Physics

A Bachelor’s degree in physics includes the study of atoms, condensed matter, optics, astrophysics and many others. Master’s degrees in physics, concentrate more on research and lab experiments, helping students develop essential analytical, problem-solving and communication skills.

Master’s Degree in Physics

Masters Degrees in Physics focus on investigating and understanding the workings of the universe and of the physical matter and processes operating within it - on Earth and beyond.

This involves understanding forces such as gravity, the behaviour of different atomic and sub-atomic particles and the fundamental properties of light and energy.

Programmes may be taught degrees (usually awarding an MSc, Postgraduate Certificate or Postgraduate Diploma) or research-based (usually awarding an MRes or MPhil). Entry requirements will usually include an undergraduate degree in an appropriate Physical Science subject.

Doctorate Degree in Physics

Candidates for a Physics PhD program are typically graduates from previous degree programs that provided a necessary basis of knowledge in mathematics and science. Some specializations for Physics PhD programs can include condensed matter physics, atomic physics, molecular physics, optical physics, geophysics, biophysics, high energy/particle physics, and astrophysics.

Practical applications for specific theoretical training and skills practised in a Physics PhD program can include engineering, product development, consulting, teaching and more. Applied physics is the area of research intended for use, but all Physics PhD topics are considered valuable contributions to our knowledge of the world. In addition to a dissertation, duties and expectations for a Physics PhD candidate may include assisting with other ongoing research projects, publications, and to assist in teaching undergraduate courses.

Career Outlook

Whether you want to explore space, time, matter or the many other intriguing elements of the physical world, a physics degree can do wonders for your career path. While many physics graduates go on to work within research roles, these are spread across many different industries – including education, automotive and aerospace industries, defence, the public sector, healthcare, energy, materials, technology, computing and IT.

Research scientist careers

Although it’s possible to enter into scientific research as a trainee or technician with a good undergraduate degree, those looking to pursue long-term careers in research should consider further study, as senior research roles are often reserved for those with at least a master’s degree. As well as the MSc, MPhys and PhD qualifications, leading researchers can also gain the title of ‘Chartered Physicist’ (CPhys) from the Institute of Physics (IOP).

The main reason to study physics at the graduate level is to help you gain more in-depth, specialized knowledge to prepare you to work effectively in a specific field. Potential areas of specialization include astrophysics, particle physics, biotechnology, nanotechnology, meteorology, aerospace dynamics, atomic and laser physics, atmospheric, oceanic and planetary physics and climate science.

Physics careers in space and astronomy

Everyone wants to be an astronaut where they’re young, but if you study physics you may actually have a chance! Of course, roles within the space sector are limited and highly competitive, and most do not include any direct involvement in space travel. For administrative and trainee roles in this sector, an undergraduate degree may be sufficient, but for higher-level and more specialized roles, you’ll almost certainly need at least a master’s degree.

As well as research institutes, within both the public and private sectors, other organizations offering roles related to space and astronomy include museums and planetariums. Many professional astronomers can also be found conducting research and teaching within universities and colleges, or research labs and observatories with affiliations to academic institutions.

As an astronomer, your job would be to study the universe, collecting data from global satellites and spacecraft and operating radio and optical telescopes. Other tasks within this sector include investigation and research of new materials and technologies, measuring the performance of existing materials and technologies, and problem-solving at the design stage.

Physics careers in healthcare

Although it may not be the first industry you think of, physics careers in the healthcare sector are numerous. Medical physics overlaps significantly with biomedical engineering, and physicists work alongside biomedical engineers to create, review and maintain medical technologies and equipment. Although cardiology and neurology are areas reserved for those with an additional medical degree, physicists are regularly employed within areas such as radiology, radiation oncology and nuclear medicine, in order to test and approve the latest technologies and equipment.

Research-based roles in this field are available within medical technology companies, healthcare providers, research centres and academic institutions. Knowledge of accelerator physics, radiation detection and materials science are valuable for many of these roles, and a master’s degree in a relevant specialization (e.g. medical physics) will also give you a leg up into the industry.

Physics careers in engineering

The engineering sector provides many careers in physics, particularly within manufacturing and technology-based roles. Physics graduates are often tasked with improving and developing products and manufacturing processes, and benefit from a large range of potential employers spanning multiple industries such as medicine, energy, transport, defence, space exploration and telecommunications.

Physics careers in energy

Whether we’re talking about renewable or non-renewable energy, there are plenty of careers in physics within the energy sector. Alongside the rise of renewable energy, oil and gas companies remain big players in the energy market and are major employers for physics graduates. One area of focus is on extracting fossil fuel reserves in the most efficient way possible, using knowledge of the Earth’s characteristics and the newest technologies.

With the prospect of fossil fuels running out, energy companies are also branching out into renewable alternatives such as wind and solar energy and are investing heavily in research and development in this area, offering much career potential. Your role here could be to collaborate with other scientists and engineers to develop efficient and functional energy systems which harness the Earth’s energy sustainably and cost-effectively.

Physics careers in technology

A broad arena of continual growth and innovation, the technology sector is a constant source of new opportunities, challenges and career paths. For physics graduates, there is scope to work alongside other specialists in order to develop new ideas and products. Fields with particularly high demand for research and development workers from various backgrounds include relatively young fields such as robotics, nanoscience and nanotechnology.

Technology careers in physics may be based in public or private-sector research centres. Many opportunities for graduates are available within large technology companies such as Philips or Siemens, as these businesses are keen to attract innovative and talented researchers from around the world.

Geophysics and meteorology careers

Those who study physics are also prime candidates for environmental careers, thanks to their scientific understanding of the ways in which the Earth functions. While geophysicists are more concerned with the prediction of natural disasters, meteorologists focus on areas such as daily weather forecasting, as well as researching the long-term effects of climate change.

What can you do with a physics degree if none of the options above appeals to you? You could use your mathematical proficiency to enter into the financial world, or your knowledge of technological innovation to head into a relevant field of the legal sector (such as patent law or forensics). Media and entertainment are two more potential industries, where physicists are in demand for roles such as scientific journalism, computer game programming and film special effects. Other options include roles in teaching, manufacturing, transport, architecture and communications.