Applied Sciences

Introduction

Agricultural Sciences are sciences dealing with food and fibre production and processing. They include the technologies of soil cultivation, crop cultivation and harvesting, animal production, and the processing of plant and animal products for human consumption and use.

Food is the most basic human need. The domestication and cultivation of plants and animals beginning more than 11,500 years ago were aimed at ensuring that this need was met, and then as now these activities also fit with the relentless human drive to understand and control Earth’s biosphere. Over the last century and a half, many of the world’s political leaders have recognized what India’s Jawaharlal Nehru did, that “most things except agriculture can wait.” Scientific methods have been applied widely, and the results have revolutionized agricultural production. Under the conditions of prescientific agriculture, in a good harvest year, six people can produce barely enough food for themselves and four others. Advanced technologies have made it possible for one farmer in the United States, for example, to produce food for more than 100 people. The farmer has been enabled to increase yields per acre and per animal; reduce losses from diseases, pests, and spoilage; and augment net production by improved processing methods.

Until the 1930s, the benefits of agricultural research derived mostly from labour-saving inventions, like the cotton gin. Once the yield potentials of the major economic crops were increased through agricultural research, however, crop production per acre increased dramatically. Between 1940 and 1980 in the United States, for example, per-acre yields of corn tripled, those of wheat and soybeans doubled, and farm output per hour of farm work increased almost 10-fold as capital was substituted for labour. New techniques of food preservation made it possible to transport them over greater distances, in turn facilitating adjustments among locations of production and consumption, with further benefits to production efficiency.

From a global perspective, the international flow of agricultural technology allows for the increase of agricultural productivity in developed and developing countries alike. From 1965 to 1985, for example, world trade in grains tripled, as did net exports from the United States. In 1995 the total value of U.S. agricultural exports exceeded $56 billion, and it increased to more than $138 billion by 2017, making U.S. agriculture heavily dependent upon international markets. Similarly, China is both a major importer and exporter of agricultural products and is an important driver of global crop production.

Brief History

Early knowledge of agriculture was a collection of experiences verbally transmitted from farmer to farmer. Some of this ancient lore had been preserved in religious commandments, but the traditional sciences rarely dealt with a subject seemingly considered so commonplace. Although much was written about agriculture during the Middle Ages, the agricultural sciences did not then gain a place in the academic structure. Eventually, a movement began in central Europe to educate farmers in special academies, the earliest of which was established at Keszthely, Hungary, in 1796. Students were still taught only the experiences of farmers, however.

Liebig’s contribution

The scientific approach was inaugurated in 1840 by Justus von Liebig of Darmstadt, Germany. His classic work, "Die organische Chemie in ihrer Anwendung auf Agrikulturchemie und Physiologie" (1840; Organic Chemistry in Its Applications to Agriculture and Physiology), launched the systematic development of the agricultural sciences. In Europe, a system of agricultural education soon developed that comprised secondary and postsecondary instruction. The old empirical-training centres were replaced by agricultural schools throughout Europe and North America. Under Liebig’s continuing influence, academic agriculture came to concentrate on the natural sciences.

U.S. agricultural education and research

Agricultural colleges came into being in the United States during the second half of the 19th century. In 1862 Pres. Abraham Lincoln signed the Morrill Act, under which Congress granted to each state 30,000 acres (12,141 hectares) of land for each representative and senator “for the endowment, support and maintenance of at least one college where the leading object shall be—without excluding other scientific and classical studies and including military tactics—to teach branches of learning as are related to agriculture and mechanic arts.” Thus the stage was set for the remarkably successful land-grant system of agricultural education and research in the United States. That same year Iowa became the first state to accept the provisions of the act, and all the other states have followed. Now, land-grant colleges of agriculture offer programs of study leading to both baccalaureate and postgraduate degrees in the various agricultural sciences. These institutions have served as models for colleges established in many nations.

In 1887 Congress passed the Hatch Act, which provided for necessary basic and applied agricultural research to be conducted by the state colleges of agriculture in cooperation with the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA). Agricultural experiment stations were established in 16 states between 1875 and 1885, and they now exist in all 50 states. These stations, together with USDA research centres around the country, comprise a network of coordinated research installations in the agricultural sciences. Slightly more than half of the agricultural research in the United States, however, is conducted by the private sector.

Congress passed the Smith-Lever Act in 1914, providing for, among other things, the teaching of improved agricultural practices to farmers. Thus the agricultural extension service—now recognized as an outstanding example of adult vocational education—was established.

The demand for instruction in agriculture at the secondary level gained momentum around the beginning of the 20th century. Some private agricultural schools had already been founded in the eastern United States, and by 1916 agriculture was being taught in more than 3,000 high schools. Federally aided programs of vocational agriculture education began with the passage of the Smith–Hughes Vocational Education Act in 1917. Since passage of the Vocational Education Act of 1963, further expansion of agricultural education has occurred in vocational schools and in courses offered at junior and senior colleges. In the early 21st century the USDA had a number of grants to promote agricultural education at all grade levels, and many major universities, both private and public, continued to offer programs in agricultural sciences. Elsewhere, especially in developing countries that rely heavily on agriculture, agricultural education was expanded through the efforts of both governmental entities and nonprofit organizations.

Degrees in Agricultural Sciences

You’ll typically need a high school diploma/A level or equivalent to be admitted to a BSc Agriculture degree. You are likely to need to demonstrate strong background knowledge in science, with two A-Levels in science subjects often required by UK universities. Relevant work experience is likely to help your application.

Typically offered as a Bachelor of Science (BSc Agriculture), agriculture courses are highly interdisciplinary, requiring students to have a good grasp of both natural sciences and social sciences, and drawing on areas such as biology, environmental sciences, chemistry, economics and business and management. You will first build a strong scientific foundation in agriculture by studying biology, natural environments, agricultural production and agricultural science. As the course continues, you’ll usually be able to personalize your degree with optional modules to reflect your interests.

The range and combination of topics taught will vary depending on the institution. Some agriculture courses focus on preparing students for work at an international level – covering topics such as bio-based economies, sustainability on a global scale, and global food systems.

Others will have a focus on agriculture within a specific country or region or on a particular aspect of agriculture – such as crop farming, marketing of farm products, animal care, sustainable practices, or large property management. Overall, you’ll gain a wide range of technical skills and knowledge, as well as an understanding of the scientific, moral and commercial principles behind the agricultural industry.

There is also some variation in the degree of hands-on training required of students. Most agriculture courses will include at least one required or optional work placement of up to a year, and some universities even have their own farms. The UK’s Aberystwyth University, for instance, operates more than 2,500 acres of farmland. Overall, you’ll be taught in a combination of lectures, tutorials, laboratory sessions and (if possible) practical sessions at the university’s farm.

If your work placement is optional, it’s a good idea to opt in. This is a great chance to put what you’ve learned into practice, get a better idea of the type of agriculture career you’d like to pursue, and gain valuable experience to improve your employability when applying for agriculture jobs.

While many agriculture graduates go on to roles where mud and manure are not regular elements (including positions in management, research and consultancy), any student considering this subject should definitely be comfortable with spending time outdoors and in close contact with the natural world!

Career Outlook

As an agriculture graduate, you’ll be able to offer employers a strong understanding of the scientific principles of crop and animal production, combined with business management and practical skills.

Prospective employers include landowners, public and private research agencies, manufacturing companies, food processing companies, supermarkets, farms, land agents, conservation and environmental organizations, watchdog organizations, livestock dealers and logistics companies. You could consider roles within farm management, research and development, sales and marketing, sourcing and purchasing, quality control, agency and surveying – amongst many other options.

Agriculture jobs you may be interested in include:

Agricultural Consultant

Agricultural consultants are specialist advisors who advise and support clients such as farmers, growers and landowners, to ensure their business is running as effectively as possible. You’ll typically specialize in offering either business or technical expertise. The former involves giving advice on finance and business strategy, while technical consultants help with agronomy, livestock, nutrition and other practical issues. For this agriculture career path, it would be useful to study business management as part of your degree.

Farm Manager

Farm managers usually work in animal, dairy or crop production, though you could potentially oversee the entire range of productions – this will depend on the nature and size of the farm. This is a varied role, which includes both farm-related tasks such as crop management and administrative tasks, so you’ll need to have the technical and practical capability as well as strong business acumen and awareness of customer demand. You’ll also need to be committed to animal welfare and the environment.

Rural Practise Surveyor

Another of the many possible agriculture jobs you could pursue, as a rural practice surveyor, you might work and specialize in a number of areas, using your agricultural knowledge to provide professional and technical advice to clients. Areas of specialization include agriculture, forestry and environmental regulations, but you could also work within auctioneering and property management.

Plant Breeder/Geneticist

Plant breeders and geneticists aim to improve the quality and performance of agricultural and horticultural crops, as well as working to create new ones. This role is crucial to the agricultural industry, due to constant challenges to meet market and consumer demands and maintain crop yields. Possessing a relevant postgraduate degree and/or work experience would be an advantage when seeking agriculture careers in this area.

List of Subjects:

Aeroponics

Agrology

Agronomy

Animal Husbandry (Animal Science)

Beekeeping (Apiculture)

Anthroponics

Agricultural Engineering

Biological Systems Engineering

Food Engineering

Aquaculture

Aquaponics

Enology

Entomology

Fogponics

Food Science

Culinary Arts

Forestry

Horticulture

Hydroponics

Pedology

Plant Science

Pomology

Pest Control

Purification

Viticulture

Agriculture and Rural Development

Introduction

Engineering is the use of scientific principles to design and build machines, structures, and other items, including bridges, tunnels, roads, vehicles, and buildings. The discipline of engineering encompasses a broad range of more specialized fields of engineering, each with a more specific emphasis on particular areas of applied mathematics, applied science, and types of application. See glossary of engineering.

The term engineering is derived from the Latin ingenium, meaning "cleverness" and ingeniare, meaning "to contrive, devise".

Engineering is a broad discipline that is often broken down into several sub-disciplines. Although an engineer will usually be trained in a specific discipline, he or she may become multi-disciplined through experience. Engineering is often characterized as having four main branches: chemical engineering, civil engineering, electrical engineering, and mechanical engineering.

Chemical engineering

Chemical engineering is the application of physics, chemistry, biology, and engineering principles in order to carry out chemical processes on a commercial scale, such as the manufacture of commodity chemicals, speciality chemicals, petroleum refining, microfabrication, fermentation, and biomolecule production.

Civil engineering

Civil engineering is the design and construction of public and private works, such as infrastructure (airports, roads, railways, water supply, treatment etc.), bridges, tunnels, dams, and buildings. Civil engineering is traditionally broken into a number of sub-disciplines, including structural engineering, environmental engineering, and surveying. It is traditionally considered to be separate from military engineering.

Electrical engineering

Electrical engineering is the design, study, and manufacture of various electrical and electronic systems, such as broadcast engineering, electrical circuits, generators, motors, electromagnetic/electromechanical devices, electronic devices, electronic circuits, fibres, optoelectronic devices, computer systems, telecommunications, instrumentation, control systems, and electronics.

Mechanical engineering

Mechanical engineering is the design and manufacture of physical or mechanical systems, such as power and energy systems, aerospace/aircraft products, weapon systems, transportation products, engines, compressors, powertrains, kinematic chains, vacuum technology, vibration isolation equipment, manufacturing, robotics, turbines, audio equipment, and mechatronics.

Bioengineering

Bioengineering is the engineering of biological systems for a useful purpose. Examples of bioengineering research include bacteria engineered to produce chemicals, new medical imaging technology, portable and rapid disease diagnostic devices, prosthetics, biopharmaceuticals, and tissue-engineered organs.

Interdisciplinary engineering

Interdisciplinary engineering draws from more than one of the principal branches of the practice. Historically, naval engineering and mining engineering were major branches. Other engineering fields are manufacturing engineering, acoustical engineering, corrosion engineering, instrumentation and control, aerospace, automotive, computer, electronic, information engineering, petroleum, environmental, systems, audio, software, architectural, agricultural, biosystems, biomedical, geological, textile, industrial, materials, and nuclear engineering. These and other branches of engineering are represented in the 36 licensed member institutions of the UK Engineering Council.

New specialities sometimes combine with the traditional fields and form new branches – for example, Earth systems engineering and management involves a wide range of subject areas including engineering studies, environmental science, engineering ethics and philosophy of engineering.

Other branches of engineering

Aerospace engineering

Aerospace engineering studies design, manufacture aircraft, satellites, rockets, helicopters, and so on. It closely studies the pressure difference and aerodynamics of a vehicle to ensure safety and efficiency. Since most of the studies are related to fluids, it is applied to any moving vehicle, such as cars.

Marine engineering

Marine engineering is associated with anything on or near the ocean. Examples are, but not limited to, ships, submarines, oil rigs, structure, watercraft propulsion, on-board design and development, plants, harbours, and so on. It requires a combined knowledge in mechanical engineering, electrical engineering, civil engineering, and some programming abilities.

Computer engineering

Computer engineering (CE) is a branch of engineering that integrates several fields of computer science and electronic engineering required to develop computer hardware and software. Computer engineers usually have training in electronic engineering (or electrical engineering), software design, and hardware-software integration instead of only software engineering or electronic engineering.

Interdisciplinary engineering

Interdisciplinary engineering draws from more than one of the principal branches of the practice. Historically, naval engineering and mining engineering were major branches. Other engineering fields are manufacturing engineering, acoustical engineering, corrosion engineering, instrumentation and control, aerospace, automotive, computer, electronic, information engineering, petroleum, environmental, systems, audio, software, architectural, agricultural, biosystems, biomedical, geological, textile, industrial, materials, and nuclear engineering. These and other branches of engineering are represented in the 36 licensed member institutions of the UK Engineering Council.

New specialities sometimes combine with the traditional fields and form new branches – for example, Earth systems engineering and management involves a wide range of subject areas including engineering studies, environmental science, engineering ethics and philosophy of engineering.

Brief History

The first engineer known by name and achievement is Imhotep, builder of the Step Pyramid at Ṣaqqārah, Egypt, probably about 2550 BCE. Imhotep’s successors—Egyptian, Persian, Greek, and Roman—carried civil engineering to remarkable heights on the basis of empirical methods aided by arithmetic, geometry, and a smattering of physical science. The Pharos (lighthouse) of Alexandria, Solomon’s Temple in Jerusalem, the Colosseum in Rome, the Persian and Roman road systems, the Pont du Gard aqueduct in France, and many other large structures, some of which endure to this day, testify to their skill, imagination, and daring. Of many treatises written by them, one, in particular, survives to provide a picture of engineering education and practice in classical times: Vitruvius’s De architectura, published in Rome in the 1st century CE, a 10-volume work covering building materials, construction methods, hydraulics, measurement, and town planning.

In construction, medieval European engineers carried technique, in the form of the Gothic arch and flying buttress, to a height unknown to the Romans. The sketchbook of the 13th-century French engineer Villard de Honnecourt reveals a wide knowledge of mathematics, geometry, natural and physical science, and draftsmanship.

In Asia, engineering had a separate but very similar development, with more and more sophisticated techniques of construction, hydraulics, and metallurgy helping to create advanced civilizations such as the Mongol empire, whose large, beautiful cities impressed Marco Polo in the 13th century.

Civil engineering emerged as a separate discipline in the 18th century, when the first professional societies and schools of engineering were founded. Civil engineers of the 19th century built structures of all kinds, designed water supply and sanitation systems, laid out railroad and highway networks, and planned cities. England and Scotland were the birthplace of mechanical engineering, as a derivation of the inventions of the Scottish engineer James Watt and the textile machinists of the Industrial Revolution. The development of the British machine-tool industry gave tremendous impetus to the study of mechanical engineering both in Britain and abroad.

The growth of knowledge of electricity—from Alessandro Volta’s original electric cell of 1800 through the experiments of Michael Faraday and others, culminating in 1872 in the Gramme dynamo and electric motor (named after the Belgian Zénobe-Théophile Gramme)—led to the development of electrical and electronics engineering. The electronics aspect became prominent through the work of such scientists as James Clerk Maxwell of Britain and Heinrich Hertz of Germany in the late 19th century. Major advances came with the development of the vacuum tube by Lee de Forest of the United States in the early 20th century and the invention of the transistor in the mid-20th century. In the late 20th century electrical and electronics engineers outnumbered all others in the world.

Chemical engineering grew out of the 19th-century proliferation of industrial processes involving chemical reactions in metallurgy, food, textiles, and many other areas. By 1880 the use of chemicals in manufacturing had created an industry whose function was the mass production of chemicals. The design and operation of the plants of this industry became a function of the chemical engineer.

In the late 20th and early 21st centuries, the field of environmental engineering expanded to address global warming and sustainability. The development and deployment of renewable energy, such as solar and wind power, the creation of new technologies for carbon sequestration and pollution control, and the design of green architecture and environmentally friendly urban planning are all recent developments.

Degrees in Engineering and Technology

Undergraduate and graduate degrees in engineering vary in length, skill level, content, and graduation requirements. Picking the right program can be tricky. Bachelor's degrees in engineering are ideal for those pursuing entry-level careers. Master's degrees in engineering can help engineering professionals advance their careers or pursue new roles in the field.

Engineering includes hundreds of specialized areas of study, but there are five classic engineering categories:

Mechanical

Chemical

Civil

Electrical

Industrial

Associate Degrees in Engineering

An associate degree in engineering includes two years of coursework and prepares students to continue into bachelor's programs. Most engineering positions require a bachelor's degree, but an associate can be a great way to finish prerequisites and familiarize yourself with the field.

Associate enrollees commonly engage with courses in computer science, biology, and chemistry. Associate degrees can be a stepping stone toward pursuing some of the best engineering degrees in the world.

Bachelor's Degrees in Engineering

A bachelor's degree in engineering can lead to employment or continued study. Engineering bachelor's degrees can offer a broad education or focus on specific branches of the discipline. Finding the right engineering program for your career goals requires careful exploration of each institution's curriculum and student outcomes.

Civil engineering bachelor's degrees prepare graduates to design, build, and maintain infrastructure projects and systems, while electronics and electrical engineering programs focus on the production, distribution, and optimization of electricity. Electronic and electrical engineering have some significant differences, however, much like between computer and software engineering.

Master's Degrees in Engineering

Earning a master's degree in engineering can advance your engineering career and boost your earning potential. Master's degrees include coursework that builds on the training, research skills, and overall expertise gained through a bachelor's in engineering.

Many schools offer engineering master's degrees entirely online. This allows for accelerated and part-time options, which working professionals often prefer. Whether you're a civil engineer looking to enter a managerial role, an electrical engineer looking to hone your craft, or a degree-holder interested in biomedical engineering, we can help you decide which master's degree aligns best with your professional goals.

Doctoral Degrees in Engineering

A doctorate in engineering can lead to teaching and administrative positions in higher education or pave the way to leadership roles in the public and private sectors.

There are two types of engineering doctoral degrees. A PhD explores engineering theory and practise with an emphasis on research and scholarship. An Eng.Sc.D. focuses on engineering practice and application.

Students should research the engineering programs that best meet their needs. Coursework, graduation requirements, cost, and program length are all important factors to research. A PhD typically includes five years of coursework, but you can earn an Eng.Sc.D. in as little as three years.

Career Outlook

Engineering graduates are often logical thinkers with excellent numerical and problem-solving skills. The careers open to engineering graduates are wide and varied, although you may wish to choose the career most relevant to your engineering specialization and related skills. This may require extra studying and work experience; if you’d like to become a chartered engineer, for example, you will need to take a postgraduate course (MEng) and gain professional experience.

Civil engineering careers

Degrees in civil engineering prepare you for a career in the construction industry as well as in the wider business, management and financial sectors. Civil engineering careers are both rewarding and challenging and can involve construction, design and management, depending on your interests and specialist knowledge.

This career option often involves many aspects of design and architecture, allowing you to express your creative side and explore innovative new ideas, whilst also analyzing data and technology. Civil engineers need a good knowledge of design and construction methods as well as health and safety matters.

Civil engineering careers generally split into the roles of a consulting civil engineer and a contracting civil engineer. Civil engineering careers in consultancy are likely to be involved in the design stage of a project, collaborating with architects and other professionals. Alternatively, contracting civil engineers turn the plans of consulting civil engineers into reality, dealing with practical issues such as obtaining materials and meeting deadlines, and helping to resolve any problems that arise. There are also roles that combine both the consulting and contracting stages.

The role of a building control surveyor is generally suited to civil engineering students but is open to engineering students of all disciplines. Building control surveyors consider areas of health and safety to ensure building regulations and other regulations are monitored when buildings are designed and constructed. They also offer advice when buildings do not meet these regulations and will make visits to the construction site at different stages to make sure that the work is being correctly carried out.

Chemical engineering careers

If you’re a chemical engineering graduate, there are a wide range of engineering careers available to you. The technical and transferable skills developed in your degree can also lead to professions in business, finance and law.

Chemical or process engineers examine and design the machinery and processes used to turn raw materials into everyday products such as fuel, plastics and food, whilst sticking to health and safety guidelines. Modern chemical engineering is also concerned with trailblazing useful new resources and techniques, such as nanotechnology. This career would suit graduates with a strong interest in chemistry and a knack for problem-solving.

You’ll be using your knowledge of mathematics and science to help you analyze problems and come up with solutions. Good management skills are required to help effectively manage projects, budgets and people.

Another career that you might wish to consider as a chemical engineering graduate is a product/process development scientist. Your knowledge of processing gained in your degree will be very useful for this career, as product or process development scientists are responsible for exploring and developing new production processes and adjusting current manufacturing systems to increase their efficiency and profitability.

Mechanical engineering

Mechanical engineers develop solutions to help improve mechanical processes and products and can work in a variety of sectors, including manufacturing and power. They are involved in the management of people and resources, as well as the development and use of new materials and technologies. This career path will suit you if you’re technically minded, skilled at science and mathematics, and good at problem-solving.

Aeronautical engineering

The obvious route for careers in aeronautical engineering is to study a specialized degree in this field, but it is also an option for graduates of mechanical engineering, as well as graduates of computer science engineering, electrical engineering and manufacturing engineering.

As an aeronautical engineer, you’ll apply scientific, technological and mathematical principles to research, design, develop, maintain and test the performance of civil and military aircraft, including weapons, satellites and even space vehicles. You’ll need to be able to resolve any issues that arise during the design, development and testing process, including investigating any aircraft accidents and project management.

Electrical engineering

Electrical engineering often overlaps with other areas of engineering, as the sectors you could work in span from construction to communications and media, to healthcare and more. This is another area that isn’t necessarily restricted to graduates of this subject, as entry may be possible with a different type of engineering degree, particularly mechanical engineering.

Electrical engineers design, develop and maintain electrical control systems and/or components through a mixture of technical knowledge and commercial awareness.

As well as having technical knowledge, electrical engineers need to have commercial awareness and be able to project manage and multitask.

Engineering careers in management and consultancy

Engineering graduates are well suited to roles in management, as they often have strong problem-solving skills and the ability to ‘think outside the box. Some graduates of engineering might decide to study a postgraduate degree specializing in engineering management in order to boost their career prospects, while many graduates will be able to gradually progress into a more senior position which involves having responsibility for other staff or larger projects and budgets.

Experienced engineers may choose to pursue a career in engineering management consultancy, working either as part of a consultancy or as an independent contractor. This means the opportunity to work on a variety of different projects at different types of organizations, providing expert advice, and perhaps also taking on project management duties.

Similarly, engineering managers conduct a variety of tasks to apply engineering principles to business practice, for example by overseeing projects and operations, managing personnel and handling budgets. Engineering management combines the technological problem-solving know-how of engineering and the logistic, administrative and formation skills of management in order to supervise complex initiatives from conception to completion. As this is a senior role, you will usually need a qualification as a chartered engineer, as well as significant experience.

Other careers for engineering graduates

IT consultant

This career may suit graduates who have studied electrical or computer/software engineering. Your expertise in IT would be welcomed in a wide range of organizations. IT consultants work in partnership with clients, guiding them on how to use information technology in order to meet their business objectives or overcome problems. Having a good degree, prior work experience and a sincere interest in IT and consulting will increase your chances of finding work in this role.

Quality manager

As a quality manager, you’re responsible for ensuring that your company's products and services are fit for purpose and meet set standards, with quality assessment procedures in place to uphold those standards. If you understand the importance of quality to customers and businesses, have an eye for detail and are a good communicator, this could be an ideal career for you. A postgraduate degree and/or relevant experience would be useful for entry into this role.

Technical writer

Technical writers are needed in many industries to write descriptions or instructions to help people understand how to use a product or service. The strong practical knowledge that you’ve gained during your engineering degree will be very useful in this role, particularly if you have knowledge of software packages, as you could be writing manuals for high-tech products. Technical writers work for an extensive assortment of industries, from finance to nuclear energy. Again, relevant experience is useful, as are strong writing skills and the ability to convey instructions clearly in the relevant language/s.

List of Subjects:

Chemical Engineering

Nanotechnology

Bioengineering

Biochemical Engineering

Biomolecular Engineering

Catalysis

Materials Engineering

Molecular Engineering

Polymer Engineering

Process Design

Petroleum Engineering

Nuclear Engineering

Process Engineering

Reaction Engineering

Transport Phenomena

Civil Engineering

Coastal Engineering

Earthquake Engineering

Ecological Engineering

Environmental Engineering

Geotechnical Engineering

Hydraulic Engineering

Mining Engineering

Transportation Engineering

Structural Engineering

Architectural Engineering

Structural Mechanics

Surveying

Electrical Engineering

Computer Engineering

Control Systems Engineering

Electronic Engineering

Mechatronics

Power Engineering

Quantum Computing

Semiconductors

Telecommunications Engineering

Microelectronics

Materials Science and Engineering

Biomaterials

Ceramic Engineering

Crystallography

Nanomaterials

Photonics

Physical Metallurgy

Polymer Science

Mechanical Engineering

Aerospace Engineering

Acoustical Engineering

Automotive Engineering

Biomedical Engineering

Biomechanical Engineering

Neural Engineering

Continuum Mechanics

Fluid Mechanics

Heat Transfer

Industrial Engineering

Manufacturing Engineering

Marine Engineering

Mass Transfer

Ocean Engineering

Optical Engineering

Nanoengineering

Engineering Physics

Energy Engineering

Automation

Introduction

Medicine is the science and practice of caring for a patient, managing the diagnosis, prognosis, prevention, treatment, palliation of their injury or disease, and promoting their health. Medicine encompasses a variety of health care practices evolved to maintain and restore health by the prevention and treatment of illness. Contemporary medicine applies biomedical sciences, biomedical research, genetics, and medical technology to diagnose, treat, and prevent injury and disease, typically through pharmaceuticals or surgery, but also through therapies as diverse as psychotherapy, external splints and traction, medical devices, biologics, and ionizing radiation, amongst others.

Medicine has been practised since prehistoric times, during most of which it was an art (an area of skill and knowledge) frequently having connections to the religious and philosophical beliefs of local culture. For example, a medicine man would apply herbs and say prayers for healing, or an ancient philosopher and physician would apply bloodletting according to the theories of humorism. In recent centuries, since the advent of modern science, most medicine has become a combination of art and science (both basic and applied, under the umbrella of medical science). While stitching technique for sutures is an art learned through practice, the knowledge of what happens at the cellular and molecular level in the tissues being stitched arises through science.

Prescientific forms of medicine are now known as traditional medicine or folk medicine, which remains commonly used in the absence of scientific medicine, and are thus called alternative medicine. Alternative treatments outside of scientific medicine having safety and efficacy concerns are termed quackery.

Working together as an interdisciplinary team, many highly trained health professionals besides medical practitioners are involved in the delivery of modern health care. Examples include: nurses, emergency medical technicians and paramedics, laboratory scientists, pharmacists, podiatrists, physiotherapists, respiratory therapists, speech therapists, occupational therapists, radiographers, dietitians, and bioengineers, medical physics, surgeons, surgeon's assistants, surgical technologists.

The scope and sciences underpinning human medicine overlap many other fields. Dentistry, while considered by some a separate discipline from medicine, is a medical field.

A patient admitted to the hospital is usually under the care of a specific team based on their main presenting problem, e.g., the cardiology team, who then may interact with other specialities, e.g., surgical, radiology, to help diagnose or treat the main problem or any subsequent complications/developments.

Physicians have many specializations and subspecializations into certain branches of medicine, which are listed below. There are variations from country to country regarding which specialities certain subspecialties are in.

The main branches of medicine are:

Basic sciences of medicine; this is what every physician is educated in, and some return to in biomedical research

Medical specialities

Interdisciplinary fields, where different medical specialities are mixed to function on certain occasions.

Brief History

The history of medicine shows how societies have changed in their approach to illness and disease from ancient times to the present. Early medical traditions include those of Babylon, China, Egypt and India. The Hippocratic Oath was written in ancient Greece in the 5th century BCE and is a direct inspiration for oaths of office that physicians swear upon entry into the profession today. In the Middle Ages, surgical practices inherited from the ancient masters were improved and then systematized in Rogerius's The Practice of Surgery. Universities began systematic training of physicians around 1220 CE in Italy.

The invention of the microscope was a consequence of improved understanding, during the Renaissance. Prior to the 19th century, humorism (also known as humoralism) was thought to explain the cause of disease but it was gradually replaced by the germ theory of disease, leading to effective treatments and even cures for many infectious diseases. Military doctors advanced the methods of trauma treatment and surgery. Public health measures were developed especially in the 19th century as the rapid growth of cities required systematic sanitary measures. Advanced research centres opened in the early 20th century, often connected with major hospitals. The mid-20th century was characterized by new biological treatments, such as antibiotics. These advancements, along with developments in chemistry, genetics, and radiography led to modern medicine. Medicine was heavily professionalized in the 20th century, and new careers opened to women as nurses (from the 1870s) and as physicians (especially after 1970).

Veterinary medicine was, for the first time, truly separated from human medicine in 1761, when the French veterinarian Claude Bourgelat founded the world's first veterinary school in Lyon, France. Before this, medical doctors treated both humans and other animals.

Modern scientific biomedical research (where results are testable and reproducible) began to replace early Western traditions based on herbalism, the Greek "four humours" and other such pre-modern notions. The modern era really began with Edward Jenner's discovery of the smallpox vaccine at the end of the 18th century (inspired by the method of inoculation earlier practised in Asia), Robert Koch's discoveries around 1880 of the transmission of disease by bacteria, and then the discovery of antibiotics around 1900.

The post-18th century modernity period brought more groundbreaking researchers from Europe. From Germany and Austria, doctors Rudolf Virchow, Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen, Karl Landsteiner and Otto Loewi made notable contributions. In the United Kingdom, Alexander Fleming, Joseph Lister, Francis Crick and Florence Nightingale are considered important. Spanish doctor Santiago Ramón y Cajal is considered the father of modern neuroscience.

From New Zealand and Australia came Maurice Wilkins, Howard Florey, and Frank Macfarlane Burnet.

Others that did significant work include William Williams Keen, William Coley, James D. Watson (United States); Salvador Luria (Italy); Alexandre Yersin (Switzerland); Kitasato Shibasaburō (Japan); Jean-Martin Charcot, Claude Bernard, Paul Broca (France); Adolfo Lutz (Brazil); Nikolai Korotkov (Russia); Sir William Osler (Canada); and Harvey Cushing (United States).

As science and technology developed, medicine became more reliant upon medications. Throughout history and in Europe right until the late 18th century, not only animal and plant products were used as medicine, but also human body parts and fluids. Pharmacology developed in part from herbalism and some drugs are still derived from plants (atropine, ephedrine, warfarin, aspirin, digoxin, vinca alkaloids, taxol, hyoscine, etc.). Vaccines were discovered by Edward Jenner and Louis Pasteur.

The first antibiotic was arsphenamine (Salvarsan) discovered by Paul Ehrlich in 1908 after he observed that bacteria took up toxic dyes that human cells did not. The first major class of antibiotics was the sulfa drugs, derived by German chemists originally from azo dyes.

Pharmacology has become increasingly sophisticated; modern biotechnology allows drugs targeted towards specific physiological processes to be developed, sometimes designed for compatibility with the body to reduce side effects. Genomics and knowledge of human genetics and human evolution is having an increasingly significant influence on medicine, as the causative genes of most monogenic genetic disorders have now been identified, and the development of techniques in molecular biology, evolution, and genetics are influencing medical technology, practice and decision-making.

Evidence-based medicine is a contemporary movement to establish the most effective algorithms of practice (ways of doing things) through the use of systematic reviews and meta-analyses. The movement is facilitated by modern global information science, which allows as much of the available evidence as possible to be collected and analyzed according to standard protocols that are then disseminated to healthcare providers. The Cochrane Collaboration leads this movement. A 2001 review of 160 Cochrane systematic reviews revealed that, according to two readers, 21.3% of the reviews concluded insufficient evidence, 20% concluded evidence of no effect, and 22.5% concluded positive effect.

Degrees in Medicine and Health Sciences

A medical degree is a professional degree admitted to those who have passed coursework in the fields of medicine and/or surgery from an accredited medical school. Obtaining a degree in medicine allows for the recipient to continue on into speciality training with the end goal of securing a license to practice within their respective jurisdiction. Medical graduates may also pursue non-clinical careers including those in basic research and positions within the healthcare industry. A worldwide study conducted in 2011 indicated on average: 64 university exams, 130 series exams, and 174 assignments are completed over the course of 5.5 years. As a baseline, students need greater than 85% in prerequisite courses to enrol for the aptitude test in these degree programs.

Undergraduate medical degrees

Bachelor of Medicine, Bachelor of Surgery (MBBS, BMBS, MBChB, MBBCh)

Bachelor of Medicine (B.Med)

Bachelor of Surgery (B.S)/(B.Surg)

The MBBS is also awarded at the graduate level, meaning the applicant already has a 4-year degree prior to commencing their medical studies (graduate entry).

Graduate medical degrees

Doctor of Medicine (MD, Dr.MuD, Dr.Med)

Doctor of Osteopathic Medicine (DO)

Post-graduate medical degrees

Doctor of Medicine by research MD(Res), DM

Master of Clinical Medicine (MCM)

Master of Medical Science (MMSc, MMedSc)

Master of Public Health (MPH)

Master of Medicine (MM, MMed)

Master of Philosophy (MPhil)

Master of Philosophy in Ophthalmology (MPhO)

Master of Public Health and Ophthalmology (MPHO)

Master of Surgery (MS, MSurg, MChir, MCh, ChM, CM)

Master of Science in Medicine or Surgery (MSc)

Doctor of Clinical Medicine (DCM)

Doctor of Clinical Surgery (DClinSurg)

Doctor of Medical Science (DMSc, DMedSc)

Doctor of Surgery (DS, DSurg)

Doctor of Podiatric Medicine (DPM)

Career Outlook

Although a lot of people choose medicine as their profession because they want to care for patients, there are a lot more you can do with your medical degree.

Below are just a few roles open to medical graduates.

Health Journalists

Journalism is usually a highly competitive niche; people with scientific credentials and experience would always have the edge over journalists who mostly come from the arts or social science field.

Some medics usually take on health journalism as an addition rather than an alternative to their clinical jobs. However, keep in mind that you may have to gain extra qualifications (usually a short training course) or experience to make a successful journalism career.

Research

As an MBBS, MD, or MD-PhD degree holder, you can choose to pursue your career as a physician. Depending on your interest, you can choose from several disciplines, including laboratory science, clinical research, and health services research.

Medical researchers often work at academic medical centres, the pharmaceutical industry, or government agencies. If you choose to be a medical researcher, you should endeavour to maximize your research experiences during medical school, or by participating in summer research internships.

Teaching

If you have a passion for teaching, you can use your medical degree to educate the younger generation. You could choose to teach basic science courses to first and second-year medical students or teach clinical skills to third and fourth-year medical students.

Other options include supervising student research projects, training resident doctors in their chosen area of specialization.

Medical Consultants

Consultants act as advisors to organizations and individuals who need assistance in analyzing the accuracy of their use of medical terms and individuals who need real medical solutions for their health.

Medical consultants can review advertisements, marketing campaigns, manuscripts, screenplays, and more. They are also hired to help design hospitals and other medical facilities.

Hospital Administration

A medical degree will give you an edge should you decide to apply for administrative positions in a hospital. Medical doctors can become executives at any hospital, including medical directors, executive directors, etc.

Medical doctors who work in administration help to increase the efficiency of physicians and encourage an environment that makes patients more comfortable, and also ensure a smooth operation between different departments.

Hospital administrators work to supervise the daily operations of the hospital, including, but not limited to, management of facility services and practices, personnel, finances, and quality assurance.

Business Leadership

Medical executives lead and manage health care organizations like hospital systems, medical schools, and insurance companies in a bid to help them fulfil their mission and reach their goals.

These positions can be found in every sector of health care and include CEOs, chiefs of staff, and chief medical officers. In this career path, joint degrees in health administration (MHA) or business administration (MBA) can be valuable.

Business leaders will spend most of their time on administrative duties, with less time for research, patient care, or teaching.

There are still many other options in using your medical degree beyond the careers mentioned above. A growing number of medical graduates are choosing alternative careers such as political advocacy, medical informatics, and many more. To obtain further information on the medical degree programme, please do not hesitate to get in touch with our friendly counsellors.

List of Subjects:

Alternative Medicine

Audiology

Clinical Laboratory Sciences/Clinical Pathology/Laboratory Medicine

Clinical Biochemistry

Cytogenetics

Cytohematology

Cytology

Haemostasiology

Clinical Immunology

Clinical Microbiology

Clinical Physiology

Dentistry

Dental Hygiene and Epidemiology

Dental Surgery

Endodontics

Implantology

Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery

Orthodontics

Periodontics

Prosthodontics

Dermatology

Emergency Medicine

Epidemiology

Geriatrics

Gynaecology

Health Informatics/Clinical Informatics

Hematology

Holistic Medicine

Infectious Disease

Intensive Care Medicine

Internal Medicine

Cardiology

Gastroenterology

Hepatology

Nephrology

Neurology

Oncology

Pulmonology

Rheumatology

Medical Toxicology

Music Therapy

Nursing

Nutrition and Dietetics

Obstetrics

Occupational Hygiene

Occupational Therapy

Occupational Toxicology

Ophthalmology

Optometry

Otolaryngology

Pediatrics

Pharmaceutical Sciences

Pharmaceutical Chemistry

Pharmaceutical Toxicology

Pharmaceutics

Pharmacocybernetics

Pharmacodynamics

Pharmacogenomics

Pharmacognosy

Pharmacokinetics

Pharmacy

Physical Fitness

Physical Therapy

Physiotherapy

Podiatry

Preventive Medicine

Primary Care

Psychiatry

Psychology

Public Health

Environmental Health

Occupational Health

Radiology

Recreational Therapy

Rehabilitation Medicine

Respiratory Therapy

Sleep Medicine

Speech–Language Pathology

Sports Medicine

Surgery

Bariatric Surgery

Cardiothoracic Surgery

Neurosurgery

Orthoptics

Orthopedic Surgery

Plastic Surgery

Trauma Surgery

Traumatology

Traditional Medicine

Urology

Veterinary Medicine

Medical Technology

Sport

Introduction

Education is the process of facilitating learning, or the acquisition of knowledge, skills, values, morals, beliefs, habits, and personal development. Educational methods include teaching, training, storytelling, discussion, and directed research. Education frequently takes place under the guidance of educators; however, learners can also educate themselves. Education can take place in formal or informal settings, and any experience that has a formative effect on the way one thinks, feels, or acts may be considered educational. The methodology of teaching is called pedagogy.

Education is the discipline that is concerned with methods of teaching and learning in schools or school-like environments as opposed to various nonformal and informal means of socialization (e.g., rural development projects and education through parent-child relationships).

Formal education is commonly divided formally into stages such as preschool or kindergarten, primary school, secondary school, and then college, university, or apprenticeship. In most regions, education is compulsory up to a certain age.

There are movements for education reforms, such as for improving quality and efficiency of education towards relevance in students' lives and efficient problem-solving in modern or future society at large, or for evidence-based education methodologies. A right to education has been recognized by some governments and the United Nations. Global initiatives aim at achieving Sustainable Development Goal 4, which promotes quality education for all.

While most education degrees are designed to prepare students for work in various educator roles, some are more theory-based. The latter types of education degrees focus on analyzing current and past education systems and debating their strengths and flaws.

The goal of these courses is ultimately about improving education, drawing on research looking at everything from the way children learn to the best governmental structure for schools and how to keep the teachers themselves motivated.

While education is almost universally acknowledged to be of key importance for individuals and societies, education systems themselves are fairly diverse. For this reason, it’s usually beneficial to study for your education degree and complete your teacher training, in the same country where you intend to work.

Primary Education

Primary school is a crucial stage in a young person’s mental and social development, and therefore being a primary school teacher is a big responsibility. However, it can also be very rewarding.

As well as studying the professional aspects of being a teacher, a degree in primary education will give you a basic grounding in the subjects you will be teaching your precocious charges. Courses will feature placements, so you’ll get a hands-on taste of the working world too.

Secondary Education

Unlike the more general requirements of primary school teaching, secondary school teachers need to be fairly expert in their particular subject area. Therefore, secondary school teacher training will need to take place alongside studies in another subject.

Alternatively, you might complete a bachelor’s degree in the subject which you want to teach, and then do a graduate qualification in secondary education afterwards. Placements will also form a key part of your training.

Education Studies

As the name suggests, education studies is the study of education itself. This is an interdisciplinary subject, looking at things like the psychology of learning, the role played by societal and sociological factors and the history of education.

Study this if you want to understand the bigger picture of education, and perhaps work towards changing education systems for the better – be it in an administrative, managerial or research capacity.

Special Education

This is the branch of education that trains teachers to deal with students who have special needs. Special education is an extremely challenging discipline, as (even more than usual) each child will have their own specific individual needs.

But if you’re cut out for this specialization, it can be very fulfilling, giving you an opportunity to make a real difference. And, by virtue of the fact that it is not for everyone, it can also offer very strong employment prospects.

Brief History

Education began in prehistory, as adults trained the young in the knowledge and skills deemed necessary in their society. In pre-literate societies, this was achieved orally and through imitation. Story-telling passed knowledge, values, and skills from one generation to the next. As cultures began to extend their knowledge beyond skills that could be readily learned through imitation, formal education developed. Schools existed in Egypt at the time of the Middle Kingdom.

Plato founded the Academy in Athens, the first institution of higher learning in Europe. The city of Alexandria in Egypt, established in 330 BCE, became the successor to Athens as the intellectual cradle of Ancient Greece. There, the great Library of Alexandria was built in the 3rd century BCE. European civilizations suffered a collapse of literacy and organization following the fall of Rome in CE 476.

In China, Confucius (551–479 BCE), of the State of Lu, was the country's most influential ancient philosopher, whose educational outlook continues to influence the societies of China and neighbours like Korea, Japan, and Vietnam. Confucius gathered disciples and searched in vain for a ruler who would adopt his ideals for good governance, but his Analects were written down by followers and have continued to influence education in East Asia into the modern era.

The Aztecs had schools for the noble youths called Calmecac where they would receive rigorous religious and military training. The Aztecs also had a well-developed theory about education, which has an equivalent word in Nahuatl called "tlacahuapahualiztli", it means "the art of raising or educating a person", or "the art of strengthening or bringing up men". This was a broad conceptualization of education, which prescribed that it begins at home, is supported by formal schooling, and is reinforced by community living. Historians cite that formal education was mandatory for everyone regardless of social class and gender. There was also the word "neixtlamachiliztli" which is "the act of giving wisdom to the face." These concepts underscore a complex set of educational practices, which was oriented towards communicating to the next generation the experience and intellectual heritage of the past for the purpose of individual development and his integration into the community.

After the Fall of Rome, the Catholic Church became the sole preserver of literate scholarship in Western Europe. The church established cathedral schools in the Early Middle Ages as centres of advanced education. Some of these establishments ultimately evolved into medieval universities and forebears of many of Europe's modern universities. During the High Middle Ages, Chartres Cathedral operated the famous and influential Chartres Cathedral School. The medieval universities of Western Christendom were well-integrated across all of Western Europe, encouraged freedom of inquiry, and produced a great variety of fine scholars and natural philosophers, including Thomas Aquinas of the University of Naples, Robert Grosseteste of the University of Oxford, an early expositor of a systematic method of scientific experimentation, and Saint Albert the Great, a pioneer of biological field research. Founded in 1088, the University of Bologne is considered the first, and the oldest continually operating university.

Elsewhere during the Middle Ages, Islamic science and mathematics flourished under the Islamic caliphate which was established across the Middle East, extending from the Iberian Peninsula in the west to the Indus in the east and to the Almoravid Dynasty and Mali Empire in the south.

The Renaissance in Europe ushered in a new age of scientific and intellectual inquiry and appreciation of ancient Greek and Roman civilizations. Around 1450, Johannes Gutenberg developed a printing press, which allowed works of literature to spread more quickly. The European Age of Empires saw European ideas of education in philosophy, religion, arts and sciences spread out across the globe. Missionaries and scholars also brought back new ideas from other civilizations – as with the Jesuit China missions who played a significant role in the transmission of knowledge, science, and culture between China and Europe, translating works from Europe like Euclid's Elements for Chinese scholars and the thoughts of Confucius for European audiences. The Enlightenment saw the emergence of a more secular educational outlook in Europe. Much of modern traditional Western and Eastern education is based on the Prussian education system.

In most countries today, full-time education, whether at school or otherwise, is compulsory for all children up to a certain age. Due to this the proliferation of compulsory education, combined with population growth, UNESCO has calculated that in the next 30 years more people will receive formal education than in all of human history thus far.

Degrees in Education

Certificate Program in Education

A certificate in education typically takes less than one year to complete. Undergraduate certificate programs prepare students to work as teaching aides and classroom assistants with children and young learners. An undergraduate certificate in education may also accompany a bachelor's degree. For example, students studying mathematics or science may opt to add a teaching certificate to their credentials.

Graduate certificates supplement existing teaching knowledge and skills, often by emphasizing a speciality. Graduate students can earn certificates in areas like administration, online teaching, or curriculum and instruction to expand their professional opportunities.

Associate Degree in Education

An associate degree in education typically spans two years, but students can often complete online degrees in less time. Coursework covers childhood psychology, principles of education, and classroom management. Some associate degrees in education include specialized coursework in early childhood or elementary education.

Individuals who want to become childcare workers, homeschool teachers, or substitute teachers benefit from associate degrees in education. Learners with associate degrees in education can also transfer into bachelor's degrees in the field.

What's the Difference Between an AA and an AS in Education?

Both associate of arts (AA) and associate of science (AS) degrees in education help learners transition into four-year bachelor's programs upon completion. The AA is an ideal path if you're seeking a general introduction to the discipline of education with a traditional liberal arts education, while the AS focuses more on math and science courses, making it an attractive option for those who plan to teach in STEM-related fields.

Bachelor's Degree in Education

Also referred to as a bachelor's degree in teaching, these education programs prepare students for careers as instructors. Bachelor's degrees in education include general education coursework, specialized classes, and practical requirements that train students to work in classrooms at elementary, middle, and high schools. Bachelor-level education degrees may also integrate discipline-specific classes in areas such as mathematics and science.

Most bachelor's degrees in education take just over four years to complete, plus a student teaching requirement. Bachelor's degrees often meet state and national requirements for graduates to pursue certification, though some states require a master's degree.

What's the Difference Between a Bachelor of Arts and a Bachelor of Science?

Both bachelor of arts (BA) and bachelor of science (BS) degrees in education cover fundamental coursework in principles of education, child psychology, and tools and techniques of instruction. Students enrolled in BA and BS programs also both complete practical requirements and earn their degrees in just over four years.

The distinction between the two comes down to content. A BS in education emphasizes mathematics, science, and research, while a BA in education offers a broader liberal arts curriculum. A BA in education fully qualifies an individual to teach across arts and sciences, while a BS in education is best suited to learners who plan to teach a science-related discipline.

Master's Degree in Education

A master's degree in education includes two years of coursework, but students can often earn education master's degrees on abbreviated timelines through accelerated pathways.

Students pursuing master's degrees in education are usually already practising teachers and administrators. Education professionals can earn a master's degree to advance their qualifications for administrative roles, shift into counselling careers, or add additional disciplines to their teaching expertise. Master's specializations include adult education and training, leadership in educational organizations, and teaching English as a second language.

A master's degree in education administration can lead to positions as assistant principals or principals, while a curriculum and instruction master's degree in education leads to work as a district curriculum specialist.

What's the Difference Between a Master's in Teaching and a Master of Education?

Most schools offer master's in teaching (MIT) programs as master of arts (MA) degrees with an emphasis on teaching. During an MIT, students build practical skills and gain subject-specific knowledge. Not all MIT programs require applicants to have a previous educational experience, though some do.

Current teachers and other education professionals seeking careers outside of classroom instruction should consider pursuing master of education (M.Ed.) programs. By exploring the practice of education itself, M.Ed. enrollees gain insight into and expertise in the theories, techniques, and policies that underlie teaching pedagogy, leading to careers in administration or consultation.

Doctoral Degree in Education

A doctoral education program typically spans at least three years. Students complete core coursework, participate in practical requirements and carry out research as part of either a doctor of philosophy (PhD) or a doctor of education (Ed.D.).

With a doctorate in education, individuals can work as school administrators, school district superintendents, and executives within education-based organizations. A doctoral program in education also prepares students to teach at colleges and universities, work as education researchers in government or organization settings, and take on leadership roles at educational institutions.

What's the Difference Between an Ed.D. and PhD in Education?

An Ed.D. is more policy-oriented, while a PhD focuses more on research. Both degrees can lead to administrative positions in schools, school districts, or higher learning institutions.

As part of an Ed.D., students may have opportunities to specialize in educational technology, reading and literacy, and special education. PhD programs in education are more likely to offer concentrations in higher education, international education, and educational psychology.

Career Outlook

An education degree prepares students for careers in teaching. Pursuing an online education degree offers added flexibility and convenience when compared to a traditional degree, allowing graduates to enter the teaching profession or advance in the field on their own terms.

No matter what the economic climate, teachers will always be in demand. Training as a teacher, therefore, will render you eminently employable.

In addition, many countries worldwide are reportage a shortage of teachers – particularly in STEM (science, technology, engineering and mathematics) subjects. So if you’re looking to shore up your career prospects, you could do a lot worse than to enter the teaching profession.

The same applies to those working in the education sector but not as teachers. Where there is mass teaching, a strong all-around education infrastructure will be required.

Beyond the classroom, education careers are also available in management, administration, research and advisory roles. All of these fields offer scope to contribute to the improvement of education systems and techniques and help education providers adapt to changing contexts and new challenges.

A background in education can also be useful for those who work in any sort of position which involves working with young people, or generally sharing knowledge. Examples include exhibition curators, community youth workers and social workers.

List of Subjects:

Comparative Education

Critical Pedagogy

Curriculum and Instruction

Alternative Education

Early Childhood Education

Elementary Education

Secondary Education

Higher Education

Mastery Learning

Cooperative Learning

Agricultural Education

Art Education

Bilingual Education

Counselor Education

Language Education

Legal Education

Mathematics Education

Medical Education

Military Education and Training

Music Education

Nursing Education

Outdoor Education

Peace Education

Physical Education/Sports Coaching

Science Education

Religious Education

Special Education

Technology Education

Vocational Education

Educational Leadership

Educational Philosophy

Educational Technology

Distance Education

Education for Sustainable Development

TESOL

Introduction

Architecture is both the process and the product of planning, designing, and constructing buildings or other structures. Architectural works, in the material form of buildings, are often perceived as cultural symbols and as works of art. Historical civilizations are often identified with their surviving architectural achievements.

The practice, which began in the prehistoric era, has been used as a way of expressing culture for civilizations on all seven continents. For this reason, architecture is considered to be a form of art. Texts on architecture have been written since ancient times. The earliest surviving text on architectural theory is the 1st century AD treatise De architectura by the Roman architect Vitruvius, according to whom a good building embodies firmitas, utilitas, and venustas (durability, utility, and beauty). Centuries later, Leon Battista Alberti developed his ideas further, seeing beauty as an objective quality of buildings to be found in their proportions. Giorgio Vasari wrote Lives of the Most Excellent Painters, Sculptors, and Architects and put forward the idea of style in the Western arts in the 16th century. In the 19th century, Louis Sullivan declared that "form follows function". "Function" began to replace the classical "utility" and was understood to include not only practical but also aesthetic, psychological and cultural dimensions. The idea of sustainable architecture was introduced in the late 20th century.

Architecture began as rural, oral vernacular architecture that developed from trial and error to successful replication. The ancient urban architecture was preoccupied with building religious structures and buildings symbolizing the political power of rulers until Greek and Roman architecture shifted focus to civic virtues. Indian and Chinese architecture influenced forms all over Asia and Buddhist architecture, in particular, took diverse local flavours. During the European Middle Ages, pan-European styles of Romanesque and Gothic cathedrals and abbeys emerged while the Renaissance favoured Classical forms implemented by architects known by name. Later, the roles of architects and engineers became separated. Modern architecture began after World War I as an avant-garde movement that sought to develop a completely new style appropriate for a new post-war social and economic order focused on meeting the needs of the middle and working classes. Emphasis was put on modern techniques, materials, and simplified geometric forms, paving the way for high-rise superstructures. Many architects became disillusioned with modernism which they perceived as ahistorical and anti-aesthetic, and postmodern and contemporary architecture developed.

Over the years, the field of architectural construction has branched out to include everything from ship design to interior decorating.

Landscape Architecture

Landscape architecture is the design of outdoor public areas, landmarks, and structures to achieve environmental, social-behavioural, or aesthetic outcomes. It involves the systematic investigation of existing social, ecological, and soil conditions and processes in the landscape, and the design of interventions that will produce the desired outcome. The scope of the profession includes landscape design; site planning; stormwater management; environmental restoration; parks and recreation planning; visual resource management; green infrastructure planning and provision; and private estate and residence landscape master planning and design; all at varying scales of design, planning and management. A practitioner in the profession of landscape architecture is called a landscape architect.

Interior Architecture

Interior architecture is the design of a space that has been created by structural boundaries and the human interaction within these boundaries. It can also be the initial design and plan for use, then later redesigned to accommodate a changed purpose or a significantly revised design for adaptive reuse of the building shell. The latter is often part of sustainable architecture practices, conserving resources through "recycling" a structure by adaptive redesign. Generally referred to as the spatial art of environmental design, form and practice, interior architecture is the process through which the interiors of buildings are designed, concerned with all aspects of the human uses of structural spaces. Put simply, interior architecture is the design of an interior in architectural terms.

Naval Architecture

Naval architecture, also known as naval engineering, is an engineering discipline dealing with the engineering design process, shipbuilding, maintenance, and operation of marine vessels and structures. Naval architecture involves basic and applied research, design, development, design evaluation and calculations during all stages of the life of a marine vehicle. Preliminary design of the vessel, its detailed design, construction, trials, operation and maintenance, launching and dry-docking are the main activities involved. Ship design calculations are also required for ships being modified (utilizing conversion, rebuilding, modernization, or repair). Naval architecture also involves the formulation of safety regulations and damage control rules and the approval and certification of ship designs to meet statutory and non-statutory requirements.

Urban Design

Urban design is the process of designing and shaping the physical features of cities, towns, and villages. In contrast to architecture, which focuses on the design of individual buildings, urban design deals with the larger scale of groups of buildings, streets and public spaces, whole neighbourhoods and districts, and entire cities, to make urban areas functional, attractive, and sustainable.

Urban design is an interdisciplinary field that utilizes elements of many built environment professions, including landscape architecture, urban planning, architecture, civil engineering and municipal engineering. It is common for professionals in all these disciplines to practice urban design. In more recent times different sub-subfields of urban design have emerged such as strategic urban design, landscape urbanism, water-sensitive urban design, and sustainable urbanism.

Brief History

Origins and Vernacular Architecture

Building first evolved out of the dynamics between needs (shelter, security, worship, etc.) and means (available building materials and attendant skills). As human cultures developed and knowledge began to be formalized through oral traditions and practices, building became a craft, and "architecture" is the name given to the most highly formalized and respected versions of that craft. It is widely assumed that architectural success was the product of a process of trial and error, with progressively less trial and more replication as the results of the process proved increasingly satisfactory. What is termed vernacular architecture continues to be produced in many parts of the world.

Middle Ages

In Europe during the Medieval period, guilds were formed by craftsmen to organize their trades and written contracts have survived, particularly about ecclesiastical buildings. The role of the architect was usually one with that of master mason, or Magister lathomorum as they are sometimes described in contemporary documents.

The major architectural undertakings were the buildings of abbeys and cathedrals. From about 900 CE onward, the movements of both clerics and tradesmen carried architectural knowledge across Europe, resulting in the pan-European styles Romanesque and Gothic.

Also, a significant part of the Middle Ages architectural heritage is numerous fortifications across the continent. From the Balkans to Spain, and from Malta to Estonia, these buildings represent an important part of European heritage.

Modernism

Around the beginning of the 20th century, general dissatisfaction with the emphasis on revivalist architecture and elaborate decoration gave rise to many new lines of thought that served as precursors to Modern architecture. Notable among these is the Deutscher Werkbund, formed in 1907 to produce better quality machine-made objects. The rise of the profession of industrial design is usually placed here. Following this lead, the Bauhaus school, founded in Weimar, Germany in 1919, redefined the architectural bounds prior set throughout history, viewing the creation of a building as the ultimate synthesis—the apex—of art, craft, and technology.

When modern architecture was first practised, it was an avant-garde movement with moral, philosophical, and aesthetic underpinnings. Immediately after World War I, pioneering modernist architects sought to develop a completely new style appropriate for a new post-war social and economic order, focused on meeting the needs of the middle and working classes. They rejected the architectural practice of the academic refinement of historical styles which served the rapidly declining aristocratic order. The approach of the Modernist architects was to reduce buildings to pure forms, removing historical references and ornament in favour of functional details. Buildings displayed their functional and structural elements, exposing steel beams and concrete surfaces instead of hiding them behind decorative forms. Architects such as Frank Lloyd Wright developed organic architecture, in which the form was defined by its environment and purpose, to promote harmony between human habitation and the natural world with prime examples being Robie House and Fallingwater.

Architects such as Mies van der Rohe, Philip Johnson and Marcel Breuer worked to create beauty based on the inherent qualities of building materials and modern construction techniques, trading traditional historic forms for simplified geometric forms, celebrating the new means and methods made possible by the Industrial Revolution, including steel-frame construction, which gave birth to high-rise superstructures. Fazlur Rahman Khan's development of the tube structure was a technological breakthrough in building ever higher. By mid-century, Modernism had morphed into the International Style, an aesthetic epitomized in many ways by the Twin Towers of New York's World Trade Center designed by Minoru Yamasaki.

Architecture today

Since the 1980s, as the complexity of buildings began to increase (in terms of structural systems, services, energy and technologies), the field of architecture became multi-disciplinary with specializations for each project type, technological expertise or project delivery methods. Moreover, there has been an increased separation of the 'design' architect from the 'project' architect who ensures that the project meets the required standards and deals with matters of liability. The preparatory processes for the design of any large building have become increasingly complicated, and require preliminary studies of such matters as durability, sustainability, quality, money, and compliance with local laws. A large structure can no longer be the design of one person but must be the work of many. Modernism and Postmodernism have been criticised by some members of the architectural profession who feel that successful architecture is not a personal, philosophical, or aesthetic pursuit by individualists; rather it has to consider the everyday needs of people and use technology to create liveable environments, with the design process being informed by studies of behavioural, environmental, and social sciences.

Environmental sustainability has become a mainstream issue, with a profound effect on the architectural profession. Many developers, those who support the financing of buildings, have become educated to encourage the facilitation of environmentally sustainable design, rather than solutions based primarily on immediate cost. Major examples of this can be found in passive solar building design, greener roof designs, biodegradable materials, and more attention to a structure's energy usage. This major shift in architecture has also changed architecture schools to focus more on the environment. There has been an acceleration in the number of buildings that seek to meet green building sustainable design principles. Sustainable practices that were at the core of vernacular architecture increasingly provide inspiration for environmentally and socially sustainable contemporary techniques. The U.S. Green Building Council's LEED (Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design) rating system has been instrumental in this.

Concurrently, the recent movements of New Urbanism, Metaphoric architecture, Complementary architecture and New Classical architecture promote a sustainable approach towards construction that appreciates and develops smart growth, architectural tradition and classical design. This is in contrast to modernist and globally uniform architecture, as well as leaning against solitary housing estates and suburban sprawl. Glass curtain walls, which were the hallmark of the ultra-modern urban life in many countries surfaced even in developing countries like Nigeria where international styles had been represented since the mid 20th Century mostly because of the leanings of foreign-trained architects.

Degrees in Architecture and Design

Architects design structures fit for human use and therefore are largely responsible for the safety and reliability of these structures, so students must be prepared to study for a relatively long period before becoming fully-fledged, licensed architects. Although regulations of architecture licensing vary from region to region, often you will have to commit to at least five years of study (bachelor’s and master’s degree levels) and two years of practical work experience.

If asked to answer the question “what is architecture?” many people might simply say that architects design buildings. However, architecture careers often involve a much more varied workload. Much of the time, a practising architect at a small- to the medium-sized firm will also be involved in planning, budgeting, handling financial accounts, negotiating with contractors, ensuring compliance with health and safety regulations on-site, and preparing specifications for materials and workmanship.

Undergraduate architecture degrees will teach students everything from how a beam works to how to accurately draw 3D designs, both by hand and using computer programs. The bulk of your studies is likely to be based in a studio for design work, combined with tutorials and critique lessons. The critique sessions, otherwise known as ‘crits’, are sessions in art and design education where a student presents work to tutors and fellow students, and then receives feedback on that work.

Students of architecture courses will also attend lectures on history, theory and technology as well as computer-aided design tutorials, which aim to provide students with proficiency in various design programs to help them complete individual projects. Essays are also a staple of architecture degrees, as are frequent site visits to important buildings and places of architectural interest.

Those who study architecture at the undergraduate level will graduate in three to four years with a BA or BSc depending on the program.

After completing all the necessary stages in your country, you’ll be a licensed architect with a BArch or DipArch qualification depending on the course.

Career Outlook

Architecture Careers

Architecture careers are much more diverse than they might initially appear. Many practising architects choose to work for themselves on a self-employed basis, or within a partnership (similar to a law firm), although some do work for larger companies on fixed salaries.

Depending on you’re the architecture topics you chose to specialize in, architecture careers can provide a highly varied workload. You may choose to focus on residential builds or specialize in commercial designs, be involved in the design of large public projects or work for several different smaller clients at a time. The variety of projects you take on means that every day of working life will be a little bit different and your time will often be split between your studio or office and visits to construction sites and working environments.

In a smaller firm, architects will often provide a range of services, beyond just design. These services may include handling your client’s finances, hiring and negotiating with contractors, planning, budgeting and generally ensuring the smooth running of the entire project. Some architects will choose to focus on just specific aspects, however, and architecture careers within larger companies provide opportunities for more specialized focus.

Landscape Architecture Careers

Landscape architecture careers can include many different skills and services, with a focus on the planning, designing and management of outdoor space. Landscape architects can be involved in anything from the establishment of a wind farm to the creation of a car park. Those interested in landscape architecture careers will often have a love of the outdoors and a specialized degree in landscape architecture.

Architectural Planning Careers

As an architectural planner you may work in town or national planning, planning policy, environmental planning and transport planning, to name just a few options. Your employer may be the central government, a local authority or even any private development and regeneration company. Your career may see you addressing issues linked to climate change, helping to protect areas of countryside, waterways and shorelines, or promoting energy efficiency within your town or country. This career path often involves a close emphasis on engaging with communities, as well as a focus on the future of spaces and places.

Other Careers with an Architecture Degree

Although most graduates of architecture will go on to become licensed architects and practice professionally in the field, there are many other alternative career paths to consider – particularly roles which require creative and visual skills, technical ability and knowledge of buildings. These career options include roles in spatial design, graphic design, set design for stage and film, building surveying, housing policy and planning, construction, and conservation and environmental work.

Management-level careers within these fields are also often within grasp for those who have undertaken postgraduate study and/or gained professional experience. Journalism is another route that might appeal; specialist journals and publications relating to architecture or the construction industry will often seek out architecture graduates.

List of Subjects:

Architecture

Interior Architecture

Landscape Architecture

Architectural Analytics

Historic Preservation

Interior Design (Interior Architecture)

Landscape Architecture (Landscape Planning)

Landscape Design

Urban Planning (Urban Design)

Visual Communication

Graphic Design

Technical Drawing

Industrial Design (Product Design)

Ergonomics

Toy and Amusement Design

User Experience Design

Interaction Design

Information Architecture

User Interface Design

User Experience Evaluation

Textile Design

Introduction

Environmental Science brings together the fields of ecology, biology, zoology, oceanography, atmospheric science, soil science, geology, chemistry and more in an interdisciplinary study of how natural and man-made processes interact with one another and ultimately affect the various biomes of Earth. Environmental Sciences study the environment and the solution of environmental problems. Environmental science emerged from the fields of natural history and medicine during the Enlightenment. Today it provides an integrated, quantitative, and interdisciplinary approach to the study of environmental systems.

Environmental studies incorporate more of the social sciences for understanding human relationships, perceptions and policies towards the environment. Environmental engineering focuses on design and technology for improving environmental quality in every aspect.

Environmental scientists like the understanding of earth processes, evaluating alternative energy systems, pollution control and mitigation, natural resource management, and the effects of global warming and climate change. Environmental issues almost always include an interaction of physical, chemical, and biological processes. Environmental scientists bring a systems approach to the analysis of environmental problems. Key elements of an effective environmental scientist include the ability to relate space, and time relationships as well as quantitative analysis.

Environmental science came alive as a substantive, active field of scientific investigation in the 1960s and 1970s driven by (a) the need for a multi-disciplinary approach to analyze complex environmental problems, (b) the arrival of substantive environmental laws requiring specific environmental protocols of investigation and (c) the growing public awareness of a need for action in addressing environmental problems. Events that spurred this development included the publication of Rachel Carson's landmark environmental book Silent Spring along with major environmental issues becoming very public, such as the 1969 Santa Barbara oil spill, and the Cuyahoga River of Cleveland, Ohio, "catching fire" (also in 1969), and helped increase the visibility of environmental issues and create this new field of study.

Atmospheric Sciences

Atmospheric sciences focus on the Earth's atmosphere, with an emphasis upon its interrelation with other systems. Atmospheric sciences can include studies of meteorology, greenhouse gas phenomena, atmospheric dispersion modelling of airborne contaminants, sound propagation phenomena related to noise pollution, and even light pollution.

Taking the example of the global warming phenomena, physicists create computer models of atmospheric circulation and infrared radiation transmission, chemists examine the inventory of atmospheric chemicals and their reactions, biologists analyze the plant and animal contributions to carbon dioxide fluxes, and specialists such as meteorologists and oceanographers add additional breadth in understanding the atmospheric dynamics.

Ecology

As defined by the Ecological Society of America, "Ecology is the study of the relationships between living organisms, including humans, and their physical environment; it seeks to understand the vital connections between plants and animals and the world around them." Ecologists might investigate the relationship between a population of organisms and some physical characteristic of their environment, such as concentration of a chemical; or they might investigate the interaction between two populations of different organisms through some symbiotic or competitive relationship. For example, an interdisciplinary analysis of an ecological system which is being impacted by one or more stressors might include several related environmental science fields. In an estuarine setting where a proposed industrial development could impact certain species by water and air pollution, biologists would describe the flora and fauna, chemists would analyze the transport of water pollutants to the marsh, physicists would calculate air pollution emissions and geologists would assist in understanding the marsh soils and bay muds.

Environmental Chemistry

Environmental chemistry is the study of chemical alterations in the environment. Principal areas of study include soil contamination and water pollution. The topics of analysis include chemical degradation in the environment, multi-phase transport of chemicals (for example, evaporation of a solvent containing lake to yield solvent as an air pollutant), and chemical effects upon biota.

As an example study, consider the case of a leaking solvent tank which has entered the habitat soil of an endangered species of amphibian. As a method to resolve or understand the extent of soil contamination and subsurface transport of solvent, a computer model would be implemented. Chemists would then characterize the molecular bonding of the solvent to the specific soil type, and biologists would study the impacts upon soil arthropods, plants, and ultimately pond-dwelling organisms that are the food of the endangered amphibian.

Geosciences

Geosciences include environmental geology, environmental soil science, volcanic phenomena and evolution of the Earth's crust. In some classification systems this can also include hydrology, including oceanography.

As an example study, of soils erosion, calculations would be made of surface runoff by soil scientists. Fluvial geomorphologists would assist in examining sediment transport in overland flow. Physicists would contribute by assessing the changes in light transmission in the receiving waters. Biologists would analyze subsequent impacts to aquatic flora and fauna from increases in water turbidity.

Forestry

Forestry is the science and craft of creating, managing, planting, using, conserving and repairing forests, woodlands, and associated resources for human and environmental benefits. Forestry is practiced in plantations and natural stands. The science of forestry has elements that belong to the biological, physical, social, political and managerial sciences. Forest management play essential role of creation and modification of habitats and affect ecosystem services provisioning.

Degrees in Environmental Sciences

Very much an ‘interdisciplinary’ subject, environmental science degrees challenge students to combine skills and knowledge from a variety of different fields. This could mean exploring aspects of biology, chemistry, physics, geography, Earth and marine sciences, and also social sciences. The idea is to combine multiple perspectives and data sources, to build up a fuller understanding of natural and human environments.

Fieldwork is an important part of most environmental science degrees, which often include trips to a variety of different countries and world regions, giving those who study environmental science the opportunity to experience different habitats, climates, land formations and societies. You can also expect to spend a fair amount of time in the lab, learning how to carry out different types of tests and analysis. In addition, students often undertake voluntary work in an environment-related role, which provides valuable experience to prepare them for future environmental science careers.

As is true of all subjects, entry requirements will vary between different institutions. However, those applying for an undergraduate (bachelor’s) degree in environmental science can expect to be asked for a diploma of secondary education, including good grades in at least one of the following related subjects: biology, chemistry, economics, geography, geology, mathematics or physics. At master’s level, you’ll need to have completed a relevant bachelor’s degree, either in environmental sciences or in one of the subjects mentioned above. Some universities may require applicants to attend a face-to-face interview, and/or to sit an entrance exam, often depending on national norms.

Environmental science degrees usually last for three or four years at bachelor’s level and one or two years for a master’s qualification. The initial stage of your studies will include compulsory core modules, which aim to give you a general understanding of environmental science and introduce you to some of the main principles. The following stages will typically allow students to choose options from a selection of possible course modules, allowing for growing specialization in one or more environmental science topics. Towards the end of your program, you are likely to have the opportunity to carry out your own research on a topic of your choice. Assessment methods include essays, written discussions, exams, problem sheets, laboratory reports, field exercises, field notebooks and seminar presentations.

Career Outlook

There are many different environmental science careers open to graduates, in sectors ranging from outdoor recreation to waste disposal, and from public policy development to agriculture. Some of the environmental science careers you may consider include:

Environmental Consultancy Careers

Working in environmental consultancy means providing advice to various organizations, either governmental or private, about an issue connected to the environment. This could mean assessing the environmental impact of an existing or planned project; advising on the pollution or contamination of land, air or water; measuring the ‘carbon footprint’ of an activity; advising on relevant legislation and regulations; and generally helping companies to become more sustainable.

Nature Conservation Careers

This pathway is for those who want to focus on protecting and promoting the natural environment. Nature conservation careers could involve overseeing the sustainable management of a natural area; planning and supervising projects to increase biodiversity or to bolster a particular species; fundraising and campaigning to raise awareness of relevant issues. Employers include charities and non-profits, national parks and nature reserves, private estates, local authorities and consultancies.

Environmental Education Careers

Suited to those keen to pass on their knowledge and passion for the subject, environmental education careers could mean visiting schools to give talks, leading nature walks and organizing events, training volunteers and running workshops or courses, and liaising with educational and community groups. Common employers include trusts and charities, local authorities and other public sector groups, and attractions such as zoos, wildlife parks and botanical gardens.

Environmental Management Careers

If you choose a career in environmental management, you will be responsible for developing and implementing environmental strategies that promote sustainable development. You may work for organizations in either the public or private sector, taking on a leading role in helping to improve their environmental performance. The role is likely to involve carrying out assessments, identifying problems and organizing training of staff to ensure everyone follows relevant policies and contributes to achieving environmental targets.

Recycling Careers

Careers within the recycling sector include working on the development and implementation of waste reduction policies. You could find a role managing existing recycling schemes either for large organizations or for individual households, or in campaigning and running initiatives to promote recycling. Such jobs can often be found within local authorities, private organizations dealing with environmental services, or charities dedicated to reducing domestic and industrial waste.

Waste Management Careers

Working in the waste management sector typically means helping to organize and manage waste disposal and recycling facilities. You may also be responsible for street cleaning operations and waste collection within a certain community. If you choose this career path, you are likely to work for a local authority, or for a private organizations or environmental agency which deals with landfill waste and conservation projects.

Water Quality Careers

A career in this sector includes working on solutions to improve water quality and dealing with various connected problems. You will conduct analysis of the current situation, examine and test water resources, and develop specific actions to improve the quality, drawing on the interdisciplinary knowledge gained during your degree. Opportunities to further specialize include roles focusing on drinking water, surface water or groundwater.

List of Subjects:

Natural Resources

Environmental Management

Coastal Management

Fisheries Management

Land Management

Natural Resource Management

Waste Management

Wildlife Management

Wildlife Observation

Recreation Ecology

Silviculture

Sustainability Studies

Sustainable Development

Toxicology

Biodiversity

Introduction

Journalism is the production and distribution of reports on the interaction of events, facts, ideas, and people that are the "news of the day" and that informs society to at least some degree. The word applies to the occupation (professional or not), the methods of gathering information, and the organizing literary styles. Journalistic media include: print, television, radio, Internet, and, in the past, newsreels.

Concepts of the appropriate role for journalism vary between countries. In some nations, the news media are controlled by government intervention and are not fully (or even partially) independent. In others, the news media are independent of the government and instead operate as private industry. In addition to the varying nature of how media organizations are run and funded, countries may have differing implementations of laws handling the freedom of speech and libel cases.

The proliferation of the Internet and smartphones has brought significant changes to the media landscape since the turn of the 21st century. This has created a shift in the consumption of print media channels, as people increasingly consume news through e-readers, smartphones, and other personal electronic devices, as opposed to the more traditional formats of newspapers, magazines, or television news channels. News organizations are challenged to fully monetize their digital wing, as well as improvise on the context in which they publish in print. Newspapers have seen print revenues sink at a faster pace than the rate of growth for digital revenues.

Journalism in the 20th century was marked by a growing sense of professionalism. There were four important factors in this trend: the increasing organization of working journalists, specialized education for journalism, a growing literature dealing with the history, problems, and techniques of mass communication, and an increasing sense of social responsibility on the part of journalists.

Journalism degrees give students practical experience in gathering credible sources, determining the truth, writing concisely and effectively, and relaying valuable and engaging stories to the public

Journalists deliver information through online video, television broadcasts, and print media. Journalism degrees train individuals to research and communicate information to the public in a responsible, coherent manner.

These professionals report on current events and explore issues like institutional racism, genderism, and classism at local, national, and international levels. By reporting evidence-based news and maintaining honest, informed personas, journalists build their reputations for accountability within the profession and the media.

The knowledge and skills developed through a journalism degree also transfer to careers across disciplines and industries. This guide covers types of journalism degrees, educational pathways, and available career trajectories.

Brief History

The earliest known journalistic product was a news sheet circulated in ancient Rome: the Acta Diurna said to date from before 59 BCE. The Acta Diurna recorded important daily events such as public speeches. It was published daily and hung in prominent places. In China during the Tang dynasty, a court circular called a bao, or “report,” was issued to government officials. This gazette appeared in various forms and under various names more or less continually to the end of the Qing dynasty in 1911. The first regularly published newspapers appeared in German cities and in Antwerp about 1609. The first English newspaper, the Weekly Newes, was published in 1622. One of the first daily newspapers, The Daily Courant, appeared in 1702.

At first hindered by government-imposed censorship, taxes, and other restrictions, newspapers in the 18th century came to enjoy the reportorial freedom and indispensable function that they have retained to the present day. The growing demand for newspapers owing to the spread of literacy and the introduction of steam- and then electric-driven presses caused the daily circulation of newspapers to rise from the thousands to the hundreds of thousands and eventually to the millions.

Magazines, which had started in the 17th century as learned journals, began to feature opinion-forming articles on current affairs, such as those in the Tatler (1709–11) and the Spectator (1711–12). Appearing in the 1830s were cheap mass-circulation magazines aimed at a wider and less well-educated public, as well as illustrated and women’s magazines. The cost of large-scale news gathering led to the formation of news agencies, organizations that sold their international journalistic reporting to many different individual newspapers and magazines. The invention of the telegraph and then radio and television brought about a great increase in the speed and timeliness of journalistic activity and, at the same time, provided massive new outlets and audiences for their electronically distributed products. In the late 20th century, satellites and later the Internet were used for the long-distance transmission of journalistic information.

The rise of social media has drastically changed the nature of journalistic reporting, giving rise to so-called citizen journalists. In a 2014 study of journalists in the United States, 40% of participants claimed they rely on social media as a source, with over 20% depending on microblogs to collect facts. From this, the conclusion can be drawn that breaking news nowadays often stems from user-generated content, including videos and pictures posted online on social media. However, though 69.2% of the surveyed journalists agreed that social media allowed them to connect to their audience, only 30% thought it had a positive influence on news credibility. In addition to this, a recent study done by Pew Research Center shows that eight-in-ten Americans are getting their news from digital devices.

Consequently, this has resulted in arguments to reconsider journalism as a process distributed among many authors, including the socially mediating public, rather than as individual products and articles written by dedicated journalists.

Because of these changes, the credit ratings of news outlets has reached an all-time low. A 2014 study revealed that only 22% of Americans reported a "great deal" or "quite a lot of confidence" in either television news or newspapers.

Degrees in Journalism and Communication

Journalism degrees give students practical experience in gathering credible sources, determining the truth, writing concisely and effectively, and relaying valuable and engaging stories to the public.

Journalists deliver information through online video, television broadcasts, and print media. Journalism degrees train individuals to research and communicate information to the public in a responsible, coherent manner.

These professionals report on current events and explore issues like institutional racism, genderism, and classism at local, national, and international levels. By reporting evidence-based news and maintaining honest, informed personas, journalists build their reputations for accountability within the profession and the media.

The knowledge and skills developed through a journalism degree also transfer to careers across disciplines and industries. This guide covers types of journalism degrees, educational pathways, and available career trajectories.

Most journalism positions require a bachelor's degree, but some schools offer associate degrees to help students enter the field. An associate degree in journalism covers foundational topics, while a bachelor's degree explores the discipline more broadly. To specialize further, students can pursue graduate degrees in journalism.

A master's degree in journalism also offers a pathway for individuals looking to enter specific specialities within the profession. For example, an undergraduate degree in finance combined with a master's degree in journalism equips students to report on the finance industry. Similarly, incorporating international affairs coursework in a journalism degree prepares learners to work in global journalism.

A graduate degree in journalism also helps current journalism professionals advance within the field. Continued study keeps journalists current in the latest technologies, trends, and changes in print, broadcast, and online media.

Associate Degree in Journalism

An associate degree in journalism generally requires two years of coursework. Students learn how to investigate, prepare, and present information in print and video formats. A journalism associate degree also introduces learners to different markets and specializations in the field.

As students explore the profession, they develop an understanding of written and verbal communication skills, media ethics, and how to build relationships. Earning an associate degree in journalism qualifies graduates for entry-level roles with media outlets. It also serves as a pathway to a bachelor's degree — the preferred level of education for most journalism professions.

Bachelor's Degree in Journalism

A bachelor's degree in journalism equips students for roles as reporters, broadcasters, and media production professionals. Coursework spans four years, with introductory coursework in English, communication, and storytelling. Bachelor's-level enrollees explore visual, online, and written media while honing the soft and hard skills needed to thrive in the field.

During a bachelor's degree in journalism, students gain insight into topics like interviewing techniques, multiculturalism and the media, and communication ethics. Learners may also study media relations, copy editing, and advertising. Bachelor's degrees also incorporate experiential learning opportunities, like internships, to offer graduates a competitive edge in the job market.

What's the Difference Between a Bachelor of Arts in Journalism and a Bachelor of Science in Journalism?

Some schools offer bachelor of arts (BA) degrees in journalism, while others offer a bachelor of science (BS) degrees in journalism. Many schools offer both, with overlapping curricula: Both BA and BS degrees in journalism train students in news writing, journalism law and ethics, editing and management, and news in society.

The difference is that a BA in journalism emphasizes the humanities, often incorporating a foreign language requirement into the program, which best serves individuals seeking employment as international journalists, television news reporters, or photojournalists. A BS in journalism includes more math and science coursework, including courses in statistics, making them ideal for students who want to work in science journalism, online communications, and media technology.

Master's Degree in Journalism

A full-time student can earn a master's degree in journalism in about two years. Part-time learners typically complete journalism master's degrees in 3-4 years.

The core master's curriculum covers more complex journalism topics than a bachelor's program does, helping journalism professionals advance their careers and develop specialities. A master's degree in journalism also incorporates practical experiences and projects designed to build a professional portfolio.

By studying public relations, emerging media technologies, and business reporting, enrollees can focus on specific media formats, study different types of journalism, or work toward becoming journalism instructors.

Doctoral Degree in Journalism

A doctorate in journalism emphasizes multidisciplinary aspects of communication, people, and media. Coursework focuses on the relationships between people and media; how media functions in political and social contexts; and the role of journalism in both history and current culture. Enrollees also do research work, ultimately preparing and presenting a dissertation.

A doctoral degree in journalism can last as few as three years, although some students take four years or more. Graduates with doctorates in journalism can pursue careers as journalism professors, multimedia company executives, and entrepreneurs.

Communication Degrees

A communications degree is all about learning how to communicate information effectively. Good communication is essential in all industries, helping to sell products to the public, maintain strong relationships with investors, clients and customers, and to make sure everyone within and outside the business are operating on the same page.

Your communications degree will build awareness of how to convey information to diverse audiences effectively, with specific business goals in mind. Strong communication skills are invaluable in order to provide meaning and resonance to the companies’ aims, and to present the company and its services or products in the best (and clearest) possible way to consumers, clients and colleagues.

Career Outlook

Journalism Degrees

Journalism degrees can lead to careers in media, entertainment, public relations, and marketing. These professionals work in the public sector, nonprofit organizations, the sports industry, and education. Many businesses rely on journalism majors to communicate their brand image and attract potential customers.

Journalism career salaries vary widely depending on the job title, location, and industry. Entry-level professionals typically receive below-average salaries and work their way up to higher salaries with experience. An internship can also help journalism majors increase their job prospects.

Top Journalism degree jobs are:

Public Relations Managers

Technical Writers

Writers and Authors

Editors

Radio and Television Journalists

Newspaper, Periodical, Book, and Directory Publishers

Communication Degrees

Here we look at a selection of more typical jobs in communications; from HR departments to the world of advertising – these are the typical roles where your communication skills are most in need.

Communications careers in business

With communications playing such a key role in any business or organization, a communications degree is a great way to enter the business world. Regardless of product or industry, entry-level communications roles will require you to demonstrate strong written and oral communication and presentation skills, along with knowledge of how business functions across departments. There is also the potential for career development into executive, managerial and training roles after gaining some experience.

Communications careers in human resources

A key department of any large business, human resources is vital for developing and maintaining worker ethics, performance and motivation. Your role as a communications graduate is likely to be in providing the right information at the right time to the right people within the company. You may be involved in recruiting new staff, raising awareness about training or professional development programs, or ensuring company guidelines and regulations are clearly communicated. Communications careers in this area will benefit from an aptitude for nurturing relationships and communicating well with many different types of people.

Communications careers in marketing, public relations and advertising

Marketing, public relations and advertising are three more great fields you can enter with a communications degree, delivering effective written and oral communication to consumers, colleagues or clients. This could be in the form of press releases, advertising scripts, company presentations and print campaigns, as well as attendance at media events and the ongoing development of professional relationships with clients and the media.

Communications careers in media

Media jobs with a communications degree are extensive – as you’d expect since the main aims of the media sector are to communicate information and provide entertainment. Whether you’re interested in becoming involved with TV and film production, magazine and newspaper journalism, or online and digital channels, media careers all require graduates with excellent communication skills, and the ability to curate and disseminate information in engaging and relevant ways.

Media is, however, a very competitive industry, and it’s unlikely (though not impossible) that you will be hired by a big media corporation such as the BBC or the Huffington Post straight after graduation. Relevant work experience is essential, so those interested in entering the media world should consider undertaking internships or getting involved in student media productions while still studying, to increase their chances of getting a related role upon graduation. Those interested in journalism may also consider building a portfolio of their own journalistic work and/or gaining a relevant postgraduate degree.

List of Subjects:

Journalism

Broadcast Journalism

Digital Journalism

Literary Journalism

New Media Journalism

Print Journalism

Sports Journalism/Sportscasting

Media Studies (Mass Media)

Newspaper

Magazine

Radio

Game Studies

Fan Studies

Communication Studies

Advertising

Animal Communication

Communication Design

Conspiracy Theory

Digital Media

Electronic Media

Environmental Communication

Hoax

Intercultural Communication

Mass Communication

Nonverbal Communication

Organizational Communication

Popular Culture Studies

Propaganda

Public Relations

Speech Communication

Technical Writing

Translation

Introduction

Library Science

Library science (often termed library studies, library economy, and informatics) is an interdisciplinary or multidisciplinary field that applies the practices, perspectives, and tools of management, information technology, education, and other areas to libraries; the collection, organization, preservation, and dissemination of information resources; and the political economy of information. Martin Schrettinger, a Bavarian librarian, coined the discipline within his work (1808–1828) Versuch eines vollständigen Lehrbuchs der Bibliothek-Wissenschaft oder Anleitung zur vollkommenen Geschäftsführung eines Bibliothekars. Rather than classifying information based on nature-oriented elements, as was previously done in his Bavarian library, Schrettinger organized books in alphabetical order. The first American school for library science was founded by Melvil Dewey at Columbia University in 1887.

Historically, library science has also included archival science. This includes how information resources are organized to serve the needs of selected user groups, how people interact with classification systems and technology, how information is acquired, evaluated and applied by people in and outside libraries as well as cross-culturally, how people are trained and educated for careers in libraries, the ethics that guide library service and organization, the legal status of libraries and information resources, and the applied science of computer technology used in documentation and records management.

There is no generally agreed-upon distinction between the terms library science and librarianship. To a certain extent, they are interchangeable perhaps differing most significantly in connotation. The term library and information studies (alternatively library and information science), abbreviated as LIS, is most often used; most librarians consider it as only a terminological variation, intended to emphasize the scientific and technical foundations of the subject and its relationship with information science. LIS should not be confused with information theory, the mathematical study of the concept of information. Library philosophy has been contrasted with library science as the study of the aims and justifications of librarianship as opposed to the development and refinement of techniques.

Museum Studies

Museology or museum studies is the study of museums. It explores the history of museums and their role in society, as well as the activities they engage in, including curating, preservation, public programming, and education.

Museology refers to the study of museums and the history of their establishment and development. This study is caused by the concerns of the modern world about preserving artefacts from the past and present times for the next generations. It is not only the preservation that is the subject of Master in Museology programs, but also the great potential of the museum as a mechanism with unlimited educational potential. Before museums, there were private collectors that usually kept the objects to themselves and treated the treasures of the past just as valuable objects. The museum is primarily an educational centre, which is a relatively young concept that emerged along with a renewed understanding of art and history. If you experience the wonderment that can happen when entering a museum, then a Master in Museology may be the degree for you.

A museum is a place of diachronic interaction between the past and the present; it stirs interest, awareness and curiosity of the visitors. And it is important to assist them, for example by the best decoration of an exhibition, so that the objects would have the strongest possible emotional impact on the visitor. This is one of the many skills that students develop in Master in Museology programs. Museology is a young science and it is open to using the latest inventions in order to ensure a strong and positive connection across ages. Students pursuing a Master in Museology will learn the techniques and methodologies for connecting with the range of populations and ensuring that our history is not lost or forgotten.

Brief History

Library Science

By the second half of the 19th century, Western countries had experienced such a proliferation of books of all sorts that the nature of the librarian’s work was radically altered; being well-read was no longer a sufficient characteristic for the post. The librarian needed some means of easy and rapid identification as well as strong organizational and administrative skills, and the necessity for specialized training soon became clear. One of the earliest pioneers in library training in the United States was Melvil Dewey (q.v.), who established the first training program for librarians in 1887. These training programs in the United States evolved into graduate programs in library education accredited by the American Library Association (ALA; founded 1876).

In the 20th century, advances in the means of collecting, organizing, and retrieving information changed the focus of libraries, enabling a great variety of institutions and organizations, as well as individuals, to conduct their own searches for information without the involvement of a library or library staff. As a result, universities began to offer combined graduate programs in library science and information science. These programs usually provide a master’s degree and may provide more advanced degrees, including doctorates. Particulars of admission and course requirements vary from school to school. In the United States and Canada, the appropriateness of graduate programs in library and information science in preparing students to become professional librarians is still ensured by accreditation by the ALA. Increasingly, however, graduates of these programs are finding themselves qualified for a variety of professional positions in other parts of the information industry.

In many countries, the furtherance of librarianship and library systems is promoted by national and regional library associations. The Chicago-based ALA, for example, in addition to its promotion of library service and librarianship, has an extensive publishing program and holds annual national conferences. Professional associations of a similar nature exist throughout the world.

Museum Studies

The development of museology in Europe coincided with the emergence of early collectors and cabinets of curiosity in the 16th, 17th, and 18th centuries. In particular, during The Age of Enlightenment anthropologists, naturalists, and hobbyist collectors encouraged the growth of public museums that displayed natural history and ethnographic objects and art in North America and Europe. In the 18th and 19th centuries, European powers’ colonization of overseas lands was accompanied by the development of the disciplines of natural history and ethnography, and the rise of private and institutional collection building. In many cases museums became the holding places for collections that were acquired through colonial conquests, which positioned museums as key institutions in Western European colonial projects.

Museums Association, the first professional membership organization for those working in the museum field, was established in London in 1889. In 1901, they developed Museums Journal, the first publication devoted entirely to the theory and practice of museums, and soon after other magazines appeared, like Museumskunde in Germany (1905) and the American Association of Museum’s Museum Work in the United States (1919). With the creation of the International Council of Museums (ICOM) in 1946, the study of museums gained increasing momentum and exposure, though at the time most of the scholarly focus was on operational museology or museum practice.

Critical theorists like Michel Foucault, Walter Benjamin, and Benedict Anderson also had a profound influence on late 20th and early 21st-century museology. As other disciplines began to be critically reassessed, often adding the term “critical” to their new titles (i.e. critical race theory), a discourse of critical museology also emerged, intensifying around the turn of the 21st century. It arose from a similar critical discourse as New Museology and shares many of its features, so much so that many scholars disagree about the extent to which you can distinguish one from the other. In other words, while some scholars say that New Museology was a watershed moment in the late 20th century and critical museology is a related but separate movement in the early 21st century, others argue that New Museology is an ongoing field of study that has many manifestations and names, one of which is critical museology.

The latest movements in museology tend to focus on museums being interdisciplinary, multi-vocal, accessible, and open to criticism. While these critical discourses dominate contemporary museology, there are many different kinds of museums that exist today, some are engaged in new and innovative practices, and others are more traditional and therefore, less critical.

Degrees in Library and Museum Studies

Library Science

Library science degrees and certificates teach students how to collect, manage, and preserve information. Curricula vary by program and institution, with associate degrees preparing learners for roles as library assistants and technicians, while a bachelor's degree trains individuals to work in entry-level librarian positions. Certificate programs in library science also build the foundational skills needed to work in library settings.

To become an actual librarian, individuals usually need a graduate degree in library science. An online master's degree in library science covers advanced aspects of library operations, information management, and information studies, while a doctorate in library science allows students to specialize in areas like leadership, curation, archives, or health information and education.

Depending on the level and type, degrees and certificates in library science offer different career opportunities. To choose the right program, students need to first understand the objectives and outcomes of each.

Certificate Program in Library Science

A certificate in library science is an entry into the library and information science profession. Certificate programs range from one semester to two years, covering fundamental information about the tools and techniques used by librarians.

With a certificate in library science, graduates can become library assistants at public, private, and school libraries. A certificate in library science can also lead to careers in data entry, research, and material collection at businesses and organizations.

Associate Degree in Library Science

Associate degrees in library science span two years. Students complete general education coursework in English, the humanities, and natural science, alongside introductory classes in library and information science. An associate degree in library science leads to entry-level roles or sets the foundation for continued study in a bachelor's program.

A degree in library science can benefit students already working in a library by opening opportunities for specialized roles. With an associate degree, individuals looking to enter the library profession can become library assistants, research technicians, and curatorial aids.

Bachelor's Degree in Library Science

Typically a four-year degree, a bachelor's in library science incorporates general education coursework with library and information science fundamentals. Students study cataloguing and technical processes, library management, and information literacy as they work toward a career in a library setting. Classes may also include information technology, literary studies, and research methods.

A bachelor's degree in library science prepares learners to become library assistants, data curators, and research technicians. With a bachelor's degree in the discipline, individuals can also continue on to a graduate program in library and information science. A master's degree in library science is the standard level of education required for professional librarians.

Master's Degree in Library Science

To enter a master's degree in library science, students need a bachelor's degree. The degree does not necessarily need to be in library science, but having previous coursework in the discipline can prepare students for the graduate program.

A master's degree in library science includes roughly two years of coursework on top of earning a bachelor's degree, although accelerated programs may allow individuals to earn a degree sooner.

Coursework in a master's degree in library science builds on library and information science fundamentals with specialized coursework. Students explore advanced aspects of library management, operation, and information studies, often with options to concentrate coursework in one of these areas.

Additional options for specialization include art librarianship, child and youth library services, and medical information management. With a master's degree, individuals can work as professional librarians, archivists, and library directors.

Doctoral Degree in Library Science

A doctorate in library science can lead to advanced careers in academic and archival settings. Individuals with a doctoral degree in library science often work as library directors, college and university instructors, and data managers.

The length of a doctoral degree in library science varies; they can last 3-10 years, depending on speciality and intended career. The curriculum blends lecture and research coursework, often incorporating practical experience and teaching. Doctoral students also conduct advanced research projects and produce dissertations on niche areas within the library and information science.

Many library science doctorates include specializations in subsets of the field. Common specializations include music librarianship, digital humanities, data curation, health informatics, and legal librarianship.

Museology

Museum studies, or museology, provides a holistic view of museum work, in a social, cultural and political context. Museum studies present developments within the field of management, marketing and education and offers basic concepts regarding the development of governmental policies concerning cultural resource management. The museum studies discipline covers theories and concepts from art, history, ethnic studies, archaeology and anthropology.

Degrees in museum studies cover: museum communication, preservation and conservation of heritage materials, museum exhibition content development, museum and gallery marketing, and more.

Generally offered at the master's and doctorate levels, museum studies aim to provide theoretical and practical skills required to operate a museum. Seen as a part of the information and library science area, museum studies will equip students with an analytical and complex understanding of culture and social developments. A museology specialist has a solid cultural background that allows making connections between works of art and history, or between technological objects and scientific advancements. Students will also develop an aesthetic eye, as well as critical thinking skills.

Career Outlook

Library Science

College degrees in library science prepare graduates for careers in a variety of settings. Students learn how to assess and organize information, catalogue data, and distribute materials — all valuable skills that translate to varied careers. Graduates also gain computer, database, and technology training, all of which apply to roles in business or technology fields as well as academia and libraries.

Other professional options for library science students include nonprofit work, corporate data management, and archivist roles.

Librarians

To become a professional librarian, candidates need at least a master's degree. Librarians can work in either public or private libraries. Public libraries serve patrons of all ages, managing information and materials found online or as physical books, magazines, and newspapers.

School librarians work with students, often training young learners in how to find accurate information. They also obtain and distribute materials related to educational curricula and coursework. Librarians may work at libraries that specialize in a specific type of content, such as art, music, legal texts, or medical materials.

Knowledge Managers

A graduate degree in library and information science trains future knowledge managers in the tools, techniques, and technologies used to generate, share, and distribute information and knowledge within an organization. Knowledge managers have strong communication and technological skills, which they use to assess content and build storage strategies for information.

Many knowledge managers work within a private company or organization, but they can also serve as consultants and advisors. In external roles, they provide guidance about how to manage organizational knowledge effectively and efficiently.

Archivists

Archivists oversee records and archives in public and private collections, often for museums or galleries. Archivists handle photographic information, digital content, rare materials, and written works. The role requires strong organizational skills, technological acumen, and the ability to accurately assess the importance and value of information. An archivist catalogues materials, distributes them and ensures their future accessibility.

A graduate degree prepares individuals for archival careers, and most employers prefer a doctorate. Archival work is a specialized field within the library and information science, and as such it requires niche knowledge and skills.

Museum Studies

There are fewer curatorial positions in museums now than there were 20 years ago, but aspiring museum employees enjoy a wider range of job opportunities than they did in the past. The field has changed with the decrease in public funding; the ease of handling many huge tasks such as cataloguing, research, and producing support materials through sophisticated computer programs; and the growing demand for access in all sectors of society. At a senior level, you’ll be expected to have an understanding of the museum’s mandate, non-profit management, legal issues, budgets, grant application processes, and a working knowledge of conservation and preservation.

Job satisfaction among museum professionals is high despite an average starting salary of less than $27,000. The median annual earnings of archivists, curators, and museum technicians in 2002 were over $35,000. Earnings in the field vary considerably by type and size of institution and by speciality.

Museum Curator Jobs

Museum curators oversee permanent collections and new acquisitions. They might specialize in particular media, eras, or locations. They will work on a team to choose what is displayed in an exhibition, and the content of supporting materials such as guidebooks or information plaques. They maintain relationships with the Board of Trustees and staff and facilitate communication between both groups. They are also responsible for grant writing and fundraising activities. Good attributes for a curator include precise, efficient work habits and strong internal and external community-building talent.

Art historians, arts managers, and arts educators can all compete for a museum curator job if they have the right work experience – especially when combined with a master’s degree and/or foreign language skills. A PhD may be required by major institutions. Curators are also employed by libraries and private collection exhibitors.

Archivist Careers

Archivists describe, catalogue, analyze, exhibit and maintain objects and collections for the benefit of researchers and the public. These professionals might handle art, transcripts of meetings, photographs, films, video and sound recordings, computer tapes, video and optical disks, coins and stamps, living and preserved plants and animals, and historic buildings and sites. They can work for a variety of organizations, including government agencies, museums, historical societies, corporations and educational institutions that use or generate records for researchers, exhibitors, genealogists and others who would benefit from having access to original source material.

Records may be saved on any medium, including film, paper, videotape, audiotape, electronic disk, or computer. As technology changes, archivists must be aware of potential advances in electronic information storage. Computers are expected to transform many aspects of archival collections as they allow more records to be stored and exhibited electronically.

Conservators & Museum Technicians

Art conservators preserve and restore damaged and faded paintings. Object conservators help prevent and repair deterioration of other artefacts. As a conservator, employers will expect you to have a master’s degree in conservation or in a closely related field, together with substantial experience. Competition for these positions is keen, so you should have a background in chemistry, archaeology or studio art, and art history.

Museum technicians usually need a bachelor’s degree in an appropriate discipline of the museum’s speciality, as well as training in museum studies or previous experience working in museums, particularly in exhibit design. Archive technicians need a degree in library science or history or relevant work experience. Technician positions often serve as a stepping stone for individuals interested in archival and curatorial work. Except in small museums, a master’s degree is needed for advancement.

Arts Education Jobs

Arts educators at a museum design and arrange lectures, classes, workshops, tours, and outreach programs for community and school groups. Previous studies in history or anthropology can enhance your presentation, as can your interpersonal and interpretive skills. You will need to relate to diverse groups of people, so polish your written and oral communication skills for everyone from the wide-eyed preschooler to the well-heeled arts patron.

List of Subjects:

Library Studies

Museum Studies

Introduction

Transportation is the movement of humans, animals, and goods from one location to another. In other words, the action of transport is defined as a particular movement of an organism or thing from point A (a place in space) to point B.

Modes of transport include air, land (rail and road), water, cable, pipeline, and space. The field can be divided into infrastructure, vehicles, and operations. Transport enables trade between people, which is essential for the development of civilizations.

Transport infrastructure consists of fixed installations, including roads, railways, airways, waterways, canals, and pipelines and terminals such as airports, railway stations, bus stations, warehouses, trucking terminals, refuelling depots (including fueling docks and fuel stations), and seaports. Terminals may be used both for the interchange of passengers and cargo and for maintenance.

Means of transport are any of the different kinds of transport facilities used to carry people or cargo. They may include vehicles, riding animals, and pack animals. Vehicles may include wagons, automobiles, bicycles, buses, trains, trucks, helicopters, watercraft, spacecraft, and aircraft.

Impact

Economic

Transport is a key necessity for specialization—allowing the production and consumption of products to occur at different locations. Throughout history, transport has been a spur to expansion; better transport allows more trade and a greater spread of people. Economic growth has always been dependent on increasing the capacity and rationality of transport. But the infrastructure and operation of transport have a great impact on the land, and transport is the largest drainer of energy, making transport sustainability a major issue.

Due to the way modern cities and communities are planned and operated, a physical distinction between home and work is usually created, forcing people to transport themselves to places of work, study, or leisure, as well as to temporarily relocate for other daily activities. Passenger transport is also the essence of tourism, a major part of recreational transport. Commerce requires the transport of people to conduct business, either to allow face-to-face communication for important decisions or to move specialists from their regular place of work to sites where they are needed.

Planning

Transport planning allows for high utilization and less impact regarding new infrastructure. Using models of transport forecasting, planners are able to predict future transport patterns. On the operative level, logistics allows owners of cargo to plan transport as part of the supply chain. Transport as a field is also studied through transport economics, a component for the creation of regulation policy by authorities. Transport engineering, a sub-discipline of civil engineering, must take into account trip generation, trip distribution, mode choice, and route assignment, while the operative level is handled through traffic engineering.

Because of the negative impacts incurred, transport often becomes the subject of controversy related to the choice of mode, as well as increased capacity. Automotive transport can be seen as a tragedy of the commons, where the flexibility and comfort for the individual deteriorate the natural and urban environment for all. The density of development depends on the mode of transport, with public transport allowing for better spatial utilization. Good land use keeps common activities close to people's homes and places higher-density development closer to transport lines and hubs, to minimize the need for transport. There are economies of agglomeration. Beyond transport, some land uses are more efficient when clustered. Transport facilities consume the land, and in cities pavement (devoted to streets and parking) can easily exceed 20 percent of the total land use. An efficient transport system can reduce land waste.

Too much infrastructure and too much smoothing for maximum vehicle throughput mean that in many cities there is too much traffic and many—if not all—of the negative impacts that come with it. It is only in recent years that traditional practices have started to be questioned in many places; as a result of new types of analysis which bring in a much broader range of skills than those traditionally relied on—spanning such areas as environmental impact analysis, public health, sociology, and economics—the viability of the old mobility solutions is increasingly being questioned.

Environment

Transport is a major use of energy and burns most of the world's petroleum. This creates air pollution, including nitrous oxides and particulates, and is a significant contributor to global warming through the emission of carbon dioxide, for which transport is the fastest-growing emission sector. By sub-sector, road transport is the largest contributor to global warming. Environmental regulations in developed countries have reduced individual vehicles' emissions; however, this has been offset by increases in the number of vehicles and in the use of each vehicle. Some pathways to reduce the carbon emissions of road vehicles considerably have been studied. Energy use and emissions vary largely between modes, causing environmentalists to call for a transition from air and road to rail and human-powered transport, as well as increased transport electrification and energy efficiency.

Other environmental impacts of transport systems include traffic congestion and automobile-oriented urban sprawl, which can consume natural habitat and agricultural lands. By reducing transport emissions globally, it is predicted that there will be significant positive effects on Earth's air quality, acid rain, smog, and climate change.

While Tesla is an automobile manufacturing company that is building electric cars to cut down CO2 emissions at the point of use, an approach that is becoming popular among cities worldwide is to prioritize public transport, bicycles, and pedestrian movement. Redirecting vehicle movement to create 20-minute neighbourhoods that promotes exercise while greatly reducing vehicle dependency and pollution. Some policies are levying a congestion charge to cars for travelling within congested areas during peak time.

Sustainable Development

The United Nation's first formally recognized the role of transport in sustainable development in the 1992 United Nations' Earth summit. In the 2012 United Nation's World Conference, global leaders unanimously recognized that transport and mobility are central to achieving the sustainability targets. In recent years, data has been collected to show that the transport sector contributes to a quarter of the global greenhouse gas emissions, and therefore sustainable transport has been mainstreamed across several of the 2030 Sustainable Development Goals, especially those related to food, security, health, energy, economic growth, infrastructure, and cities and human settlements. Meeting sustainable transport targets is said to be particularly important to achieving the Paris Agreement.

There are various Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) that are promoting sustainable transport in order to meet the defined goals. These include SDG 3 on health (increased road safety), SDG 7 on energy, SDG 8 on decent work and economic growth, SDG 9 on resilient infrastructure, SDG 11 on sustainable cities (access to transport and expanded public transport), SDG 12 on sustainable consumption and production (ending fossil fuel subsidies), and SDG 14 on oceans, seas, and marine resources.

Brief History

Natural

Humans' first ways to move included walking, running, and swimming. The domestication of animals introduced a new way to lay the burden of transport on more powerful creatures, allowing the hauling of heavier loads, or humans riding animals for greater speed and duration. Inventions such as the wheel and the sledge (U.K. sledge) helped make animal transport more efficient through the introduction of vehicles.

The first forms of road transport involved animals, such as horses (domesticated in the 4th or the 3rd millennium BCE), oxen (from about 8000 BCE), or humans carrying goods over dirt tracks that often followed game trails.

Infrastructure

Many early civilizations, including those in Mesopotamia and the Indus Valley, constructed paved roads. In classical antiquity, the Persian and Roman empires built stone-paved roads to allow armies to travel quickly. Deep roadbeds of crushed stone underneath kept such roads dry. The medieval Caliphate later built tar-paved roads.

Water Transport

Water transport, including rowed and sailed vessels, dates back to time immemorial and was the only efficient way to transport large quantities or over large distances prior to the Industrial Revolution. The first watercraft were canoes cut out from tree trunks. Early water transport was accomplished with ships that were either rowed or used the wind for propulsion, or a combination of the two. The importance of water has led to most cities that grew up as sites for trading being located on rivers or on the seashore, often at the intersection of two bodies of water.

Mechanical

Until the Industrial Revolution, transport remained slow and costly, and production and consumption gravitated as close to each other as feasible. The Industrial Revolution in the 19th century saw several inventions fundamentally change transport. With telegraphy, communication became instant and independent of the transport of physical objects. The invention of the steam engine, closely followed by its application in rail transport, made land transport independent of human or animal muscles. Both speed and capacity increased, allowing specialization through manufacturing being located independently of natural resources. The 19th century also saw the development of the steamship, which sped up global transport.

With the development of the combustion engine and the automobile around 1900, road transport became more competitive again, and mechanical private transport originated. The first "modern" highways were constructed during the 19th century with macadam. Later, tarmac and concrete became the dominant paving materials.

In 1903 the Wright brothers demonstrated the first successful controllable aeroplane, and after World War I (1914–1918) aircraft became a fast way to transport people and express goods over long distances.

After World War II (1939–1945) the automobile and airlines took higher shares of transport, reducing rail and water to freight and short-haul passenger services. Scientific spaceflight began in the 1950s, with rapid growth until the 1970s, when interest dwindled. In the 1950s the introduction of containerization gave massive efficiency gains in freight transport, fostering globalization. International air travel became much more accessible in the 1960s with the commercialization of the jet engine. Along with the growth in automobiles and motorways, rail and water transport declined in relative importance. After the introduction of the Shinkansen in Japan in 1964, high-speed rail in Asia and Europe started attracting passengers on long-haul routes away from the airlines.

Early in U.S. history, private joint-stock corporations owned most aqueducts, bridges, canals, railroads, roads, and tunnels. Most such transport infrastructure came under government control in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, culminating in the nationalization of inter-city passenger rail service with the establishment of Amtrak. Recently, however, a movement to privatize roads and other infrastructure have gained some ground and adherents.

Degrees in Transportation

Transport management also referred to as transportation and logistics management studies the processes involved in the planning and coordination of delivering persons or goods from one place to another. Transportation managers are responsible for the complete reception and effective shipment of cargos for a trading company. They also deal with the safe and reliable transportation of passengers, as well as developing shipment relationships and partnerships.

Students can enrol in transportation management degrees or business administration studies (BBAs or MBAs) with specialisations in logistics and transport. During courses, students learn to master transportation management system (TMS) and other strategic business tools. In addition, they develop transferable skills such as critical thinking and analysis, a solution-oriented mindset, efficient communication and negotiation abilities.

Graduates of Masters in transportation management typically work in international trading and commerce, in passenger transport companies on road, rail, air or sea. They also operate in the construction industry, national or local administration, travel agencies, supermarket chains, manufacturing companies, and many more. Some clients prefer outsourcing logistics to experts, so transportation managers can also practice in special consultancy firms.

Career Outlook

Graduating with a degree in transportation and logistics will leave you with no shortage of career paths. Not only are logistics utilized by a wide variety of institutions (everything from global corporations to city governments), the transportation and logistics industry is made up of many different parts that perform very different functions. These are just eight of the possible careers you could pursue with a degree in transportation and logistics:

Analyst

Logistics Engineer

Consultant

Customer Service

Purchasing Manager

International Logistics Manager

Inventory Manager

Supply-Chain Manager

List of Subjects:

Highway Safety

Infographics

Intermodal Transportation Studies

Logistics

Marine Transportation

Port Management

Seafaring

Mass Transit

Travel

Vehicles

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